<p>Rosecliff is a Gilded Age mansion of Newport, Rhode Island, now open to the public as a historic house museum. The house has also been known as the Hermann Oelrichs House or the J. Edgar Monroe House.</p><br>
<p>It was built 1898–1902 by Theresa Fair Oelrichs, a silver heiress from Nevada, whose father James Graham Fair was one of the four partners in the Comstock Lode. She was the wife of Hermann Oelrichs, American agent for Norddeutscher Lloyd steamship line. She and her husband, together with her sister, Virginia Fair, bought the land in 1891 from the estate of George Bancroft and commissioned the architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White to design a summer home suitable for entertaining on a grand scale. With little opportunity to channel her considerable energy elsewhere, she "threw herself into the social scene with tremendous gusto, becoming, with Mrs. Stuyvesant Fish and Mrs. O.H.P. Belmont (of nearby Belcourt), one of the three great hostesses of Newport."</p><br>
<p>The principal architect, Stanford White, modeled the mansion after the Grand Trianon of Versailles, but smaller and reduced to a basic "H" shape, while keeping Mansarts scheme of a glazed arcade of arched windows and paired Ionic pilasters, which increase to columns across the central loggia. Whites Rosecliff adds to the Grand Trianon a second storey with a balustraded roofline that conceals the set-back third storey, containing twenty small servants&#39; rooms and the pressing room for the laundry.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and interiors</h2><br>
<p>The commission was given to McKim, Mead, and White in 1898, and the New York branch of Jules Allard and Sons were engaged as interior decorators. Construction started in 1899, but the sharp winter slowed construction; Mrs. Oelrichs sister had married William K. Vanderbilt II that winter season, and the house was required for parties in the following Newport season; the eager Mrs. Oelrichs moved in July 1900, sending the workmen out in order to give a first party in August, a dinner for one hundred and twelve to outdo Mrs. Stuyvesant Fishs Harvest Festival Ball at Crossways. Ferns and floral arrangements concealed the unfinished areas. The house was not completed until 1902.</p><br>
<p>Rosecliffs brick construction is clad in white architectural terracotta tiles. Stanford Whites sophisticated spatial planning offered unexpected views en filade through aligned doorways centered on handsome monumental fireplaces with projecting overmantels.</p><br>
<p>The central corps de logis is entirely taken up with the ballroom as it appeared on Whites plans which, with the Louis XIV furniture removed, could serve as Newports largest ballroom at 40by80 ft. Its scheme of single and paired Corinthian pilasters alternating with arch-headed windows and recessed doorways echoes the articulation of the exterior. This is reached through the French doors on either side, to a plain terrace dropping by broad stairs to the lawn facing the ocean, or to a planted terrace garden with a central fountain.</p><br>
<p>In the northernmost of the wings that project from both sides of the central block, is a dining room and a billiard room separated by a marble anteroom backed, on the service side, by a butler&#39;s pantry with two dumbwaiters. These communicate with the all-but-subterranean kitchens below which were lit, invisibly, from the sunken service yard on the north side of the house. The main entrance, on the opposite south wing, is through a vestibule where the exterior Ionic order is carried inside, now suitably enriched, under an emphatic cornice that divides the height 2:3.</p><br>
<p>The vestibule is separated, by a tripartite screen with an arched central opening flanked above the cornice by bull&#39;s-eye openings in which baroque vases stand, from a grand Stair Hall. The Stair Hall projects from the south block to accommodate a grand staircase that sweeps forward through a heart-shaped opening into the floor space. This divides at a landing to return in matched recurving flights to the upper floor.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the Stair Hall is the Salon with the same proportions as the Dining Room (3:4, or 30 by 40 feet) and like it, originally hung with tapestry. Its ceiling is coffered. Its overscaled Gothic fireplace of Caen stone is the one eclectic anomaly in Rosecliff&#39;s interiors.</p><br>
<p>Upstairs, three grand bedrooms of equal importance and guest bedrooms of graduated sizes may be linked by opened doors or isolated by locked ones, in a flexible arrangement of rooms or suites, all with baths, and all separated from the wide corridor by intervening dressing closets for hermetic privacy from the staff, who moved up and down stairs by means of two small service stairs contrived in spaces smaller than the master bedrooms&#39; walk-in closets.</p><br>
<p>The most famous of Mrs. Oelrich&#39;s parties was the "Bal blanc" of 19 August 1904 to celebrate the Astor Cup Races, in which everything was white and silver.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Oelrich died at Newport on November 22, 1926. The funeral took place in the "beautiful blue and gold tapestry room" at Rosecliff.</p><br>
<h3>Monroe family</h3><br>
<p>Hermann Oelrichs, Jr. kept Rosecliff in the family until 1941, then the estate went through several changes of ownership before being bought by Mr & Mrs J. Edgar Monroe of New Orleans in 1947. Mr. Monroe, a southern gentleman who had made his fortune in the ship building industry, came to Newport with his wife Louise every summer to escape the summer heat of the Deep South. The two became well known for the large parties they threw at Rosecliff; many of which had a mardi gras theme, as the Monroes loved dressing up in fancy costumes for these parties. Unlike Mrs. Oelrichs parties, which were stiff and formal, the Monroes parties were relaxed and easygoing.</p><br>
<p>Hermann Oelrichs Jr. sold off all the furnishings in 1941. In 1971, Mr. and Mrs. Monroe donated the entire estate with its contents and a $2 million operating endowment to the Preservation Society of Newport County, who opened it to the public for tours. Mr. Monroe often would come back to the estate for charity events up until his death in 1991.</p><br>
<p>The American Beauty Rose was developed by earlier owner of the property George Bancroft and his gardener.</p><br>
<h2>In television and film</h2><br>
<p>The ballroom was used to film scenes for the 1974 version of The Great Gatsby and for The Betsy, High Society, True Lies, and Amistad.</p><br>
<p>Footage for three episodes of the PBS television series Antiques Roadshow was shot inside and on the grounds of Rosecliff on September 19, 2017, with 3,000 people attending to have their antiques appraised. It was the first time in its 22 seasons on the air that any of the show&#39;s episodes included appraisals filmed outdoors, although plans for all the appraisals to take place outdoors were spoiled by rain generated by Hurricane Jose offshore, and most of the appraisals took place inside the mansion or in tents erected on its grounds. The three episodes premiered on PBS in May 2018.</p><br>
<p>The Great Serpent Mound is a 1,348-feet-long , three-feet-high prehistoric effigy mound located in Peebles, Ohio. It was built on what is known as the Serpent Mound crater plateau, running along the Ohio Brush Creek in Adams County, Ohio. The mound is the largest serpent effigy known in the world.</p><br>
<p>The first published surveys of the mound were by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis, featured in their historic volume, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (1848), that was commissioned by the Smithsonian Institution.</p><br>
<p>The United States Department of Interior designated the mound as a National Historic Landmark in 1966. The mound is maintained through the Ohio History Connection, a nonprofit organization dedicated to preserving historical sites throughout Ohio.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Effigy mounds have been constructed independently by several cultures. The significance of Serpent Mound is based on its size and historical relevance. Made up of three parts, Serpent Mound extends over 1,376 feet (419 m) in length, varying from 9" to more than 3&#39; (30–100 cm) in height. The mound stands with a width varying between 20 and 25 feet based on the section. Serpent Mound conforms to the surrounding land, as it was built on a bluff above the Ohio Brush Creek. The mound winds back and forth for more than eight hundred feet, with its tail coiling in seven areas throughout the mound. The mound features a triple-coiled tail at the end of the structure, often viewed as a benchmark of the mound. Yellowish clay and ash make up the main constituents of the mound, with a layer of rocks and soil reinforcing the outer layer.</p><br>
<p>The generally accepted interpretation of the structure is that of an open-mouth head of a serpent nearly engulfs a hollow oval feature that faces the east and is 120-feet (37 m)-long. This oval feature may represent an egg, with an apparent depiction of the snake consuming it, however, many anthropologists believe that the oval is a representation of the Sun, or the body of a frog. Other scholars think it is the remnant of a platform mound. The western side of the effigy features a triangular mound approximately 31.6 feet (9.6 m) at its base and long axis, reminiscent of other existing serpent effigies in Canada and Scotland.</p><br>
<h2>Origin and chronology</h2><br>
<p>Throughout the twentieth century, anthropologists and archaeologists had disputed which culture and people had created the Serpent Mound, as may be seen in a overview published by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2002.</p><br>
<p>The Ancient Earthworks Project published "New Radiocarbon Dates Suggest Serpent Mound is More Than 2,000 Years Old" (July 2014). The article provided evidence supporting attribution of the mound to the Adena peoples around 300 BCE (2300 years ago) and refers to radiocarbon data that was published later in an October 2014 article in The Journal of Archaeological Science. These scholars also conclude that the mound was renovated around 1400 CE by Fort Ancient peoples.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, Monaghan and Hermann published additional research in an article in The Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology that supports their earlier conclusions. They corroborated the 2014 research and refined the radiocarbon dates. Monaghan and Hermann determined that the mound was built around 2,100–2,300 years ago (300-100 BCE) during the Adena period and that it was subsequently rebuilt (or repaired) about 900 years ago (1100 CE) during the Fort Ancient period. They provided a reconciliation of the radiocarbon dating differences among samples.</p><br>
<p>In 2018, archaeologist Brad Lepper published a response questioning the attribution of construction to the Adena culture.</p><br>
<p>Lepper et al. pointed out that the dates obtained by Herrmann and Romain are of poor quality. The material the team dated is not charcoal, but “organic sediment” (Herrman et al 2014:119). Moreover, the samples were obtained from soil cores and not an exposed stratigraphic profile, so the resulting dates are known to be problematic. Henriksen et al (2019) have demonstrated that such dates can be as much as 3,000 years older than the actual age of a mound. Moreover, the Adena culture is not known to have built effigy mounds or to have used serpent symbolism in their art, whereas the Fort Ancient culture built the Ohio Alligator Mound and frequently depicted serpents in their art. These assessments conclude that the best available data indicate that Serpent Mound was built by the Fort Ancient culture.</p><br>
<p>The Serpent Mound at Rice Lake in Peterborough County, Ontario, Canada, has been dated to more than 2,000 years old. It has also been linked to the Adena culture. It is a Middle Woodland Hopewell burial mound in a zigzag shape that may or may not have been intended to depict a serpent (Oberholtzer 2013:163).</p><br>
<h2>Prehistory of Ohio</h2><br>
<p>Several groups of Paleo-Indians (13000 BCE–7000 BCE) occupied the subject land in Ohio prior to the development of the Adena and Hopewell cultures. Evidence shows that numerous groups of Paleo-Indians occupied the land in Ohio and ranged throughout the territory. They were hunter-gatherers who traveled seasonally for game. The Paleo-Indians hunted large game such as mastodon. Archaeologists have found remains of more than 150 mastodons in Ohio, as well as the remains of other large game. The most complete mastodon skeleton was excavated at the Burning Tree Mastodon site.</p><br>
<p>Clovis point spear heads have been found that indicate interaction with other groups of Paleo-Indians who also hunted large game.</p><br>
<p>The Paleo Crossing site and Nobles Pond site tools, such as spear-throwers, were more sophisticated. Base camps were established for winter lodging. The Glacial Kame culture, a late Archaic group, traded for sea shell and copper with other groups. These materials were used for objects that were a sign of prestige within the group and were carried by respected healers and hunters. The objects were buried with their owners.</p><br>
<p>Following the ancient Paleo-Indians, the Woodland Period (800 BCE–1200 CE) of the Post-Archaic Period is known for its rich ritual and artistic life and well-developed villages. The Woodland Period is well known as a period in which cultures built earthworks and mounds. They are believed to have been related to religious practices, as some mounds were used for burials. Along with hunting and gathering, cultures of this period began to cultivate crops such as maize, squash, and beans. The Adena and Hopewell cultures flourished during the Early and Middle Woodland periods, and the addition of crops enabled the population of the Woodland people to expand dramatically. Several groups of the Woodland people lived in larger villages, surrounded by defensive walls or ditches. Ceremonial and artistic endeavors waned during the Late Woodland period, as did trading with other groups. Many of the earthworks and effigy mounds were built early in this period. Later, the cultures did not build new mounds.</p><br>
<p>During the late prehistoric period (900 CE–1650 CE), the villages of such cultures as the Adena and the Fort Ancient peoples were much larger. These villages were often built on higher ground near a river, commonly surrounded by a wooden stockade. After a long hiatus, some cultures had begun to build earthworks and effigy mounds, but not so frequently as during the Woodland period.</p><br>
<h2>Cultures of the Midwest</h2><br>
<h3>Adena culture</h3><br>
<p>The Adena culture consisted of the pre-contact Native Americans who lived throughout the midwest in the areas that would become the states of Kentucky, Indiana, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and most predominantly, Ohio. The majority of these peoples inhabited the Scioto River and Hocking valleys in southern Ohio, as well as the Kanawha Valley near present-day Charleston, West Virginia. This period is often referred to as The Early Woodland Period, ranging between 800 BCE and 1 CE. The name “Adena” refers to the shared culture of the peoples rather than to a singular group or tribe.</p><br>
<p>Researchers adopted the name "Adena" from the Ross County estate of Ohio Governor Thomas Worthington, about one and a half miles northwest of Chillicothe, Ohio. Worthington referred to the community as “Adena”, which Worthington’s diary claims comes from a Hebrew name that “was given to places for the delightfulness of their situations”. An ancient burial mound, standing 26 feet tall, had been located at his estate and was known as "The Adena Mound". It was destroyed for agricultural development.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists attribute the mounds to the Adena culture as a whole, although are unsure of the specific tribes who inhabited the land. The term "culture" encompasses similarities in artifact style, architecture, and other cultural practices, allowing archaeologists to distinguish the Adena culture from other cultures in the region at different time periods. The Adena Mound site became the "type site" of the regional culture that is used by anthropologists.</p><br>
<p>Like other peoples of the Woodland period, the Adena culture were hunter-gatherers. The women also domesticated and cultivated various crops such as squash, sunflower, sumpweed, goosefoot, knotweed, maygrass, and tobacco. They often lived in small villages with surrounding gardens, but moved frequently to follow various animal herds while planting and feeding on various types of nuts, fruits, and roots along the way. The Adena people are also known for their production of clay pottery, having been one of the first of cultures to bring it to Ohio. Observed through remains found at the type site, archaeologists characterize the Adena&#39;s clay pottery through its large, thick-walled vessels, resembling a modern-day bowl. Archaeologists believe that this clay pottery was used to cook ground seeds into an oatmeal-like substance.</p><br>
<p>The Adena were known for their burial practices. They buried their dead in prominent mounds throughout the midwest. Many archaeologists believe that these structures served as territorial markers for the Adena people. Often the mounds were accompanied by small circular earthen enclosures that many archaeologists believe were once used for rituals. The Miamisburg Mound in Montgomery County, Ohio, is home to the largest Adena burial mound in the state. Mounds such as this hosted multiple burials, characterized by the rituals performed and the funerary objects worn such as bracelets, ear spools, gorgets, and other ornaments. Larger ornaments such as bones and stone tools were often worn around the neck. The deceased individual was either cremated or placed on their back in timber-lined tombs.</p><br>
<p>By 1 CE, the Adena culture began to decline and their civilizations began to evolve into what is known as The Hopewell culture. Numerous Adena groups began to build larger earthworks and effigy mounds and expanded their efforts to acquire exotic raw materials such as copper and mica through trade. Many people of The Hopewell culture continued to follow the old ways of the Adena people. In some regions, including Southwestern Ohio, the Adena way of life persisted well into the first century CE through the efforts of these people.</p><br>
<h3>Fort Ancient Culture</h3><br>
<p>The Fort Ancient Culture refers to the Native American Cultures who predominantly inhabited land near the Ohio River valley in a culture that flourished from 1000 CE to 1750 CE. These civilizations flourished in the modern-day regions of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, southeastern Indiana, and western West Virginia. The Fort Ancient tribes are often referred to as a "sister culture" of the Mississippian culture, although they can be distinguished from that culture through the time period in which they thrived and their many cultural differences. Along with their relation to the Mississippian culture, evidence suggests that the Fort Ancient Culture were not the direct descendants of the Hopewellian Culture. Despite what many believe, the tribes of the Fort Ancient Culture were not responsible for the creation of The Great Serpent Mound, although they contributed to its physical appearance through maintenance of it around 200 CE.</p><br>
<p>The name of the culture originates from the Fort Ancient archeological site. However, the Fort Ancient Site is now thought to have been built by Ohio Hopewellian people, but having been occupied later by the succeeding Fort Ancient culture. The site is located on a hill above the Little Miami River, close to Lebanon, Ohio. Despite its name, most archaeologists do not believe that Fort Ancient was used primarily as a fortress by either the Ohio Hopewell culture or the Fort Ancient Culture. Archaeologists believe that it was more likely used as a ceremonial location.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, the team of Robert V. Fletcher and Terry L. Cameron (under the supervision of the Ohio Historical Society&#39;s Bradley T. Lepper) reopened a trench created by Frederic Ward Putnam of Harvard more than 100 years before. They found a few pieces of charcoal in what they believed to be an undisturbed portion of the Serpent Mound. Natural changes called bioturbation, including burrows, frost cracks, etc., can reverse the structural timeline of an earthen mound such as Serpent Mound, however, and bioturbation can shift carbon left by a later culture on the surface to areas deep within the structure, making the earthwork appear younger. This factor may be significant to the dating of the original construction of the mound.</p><br>
<p>When the team conducted carbon dating studies on the charcoal pieces, two yielded a date of ca. 1070 CE, with the third piece dating to the Late Archaic period some two thousand years earlier, specifically 2920+/-65 years BP (before the present). The third date, ca. 2900 BP, was recovered from a core sample below the cultural modification level. The first two dates place the Serpent Mound within the realm of the Fort Ancient culture. The third dates the mound back to very early Adena culture or before.</p><br>
<p>Another effigy mound found in Ohio, the Alligator Effigy Mound in Granville, was carbon dated to the Fort Ancient period.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretations</h2><br>
<p>Having been built around 1070 CE, many archaeologists believe that the mounds creation could have been influenced by two different astronomical events. The primary theory is that the light from a supernova may have prompted its construction. Although numerous supernovas may have occurred over the centuries that span the possible construction dates of the effigy, the one that created the Crab Nebula occurred in the year 1054 CE. The light of the supernova would have been visible for two weeks after it first reached earth and it was visible in broad daylight. As a secondary theory, some archaeologists suggest and the appearance of Halleys Comet in 1066 CE could have been the influence and that the tail of Halley&#39;s Comet could have influenced the shape of the mound; however, the tail of the comet has always appeared as a long, straight line that does not resemble the curves of the Serpent Mound.</p><br>
<p>The mound is located on the site of a classic astrobleme, an ancient meteorite impact structure. When attempting to understand the impact origin of this structure, the pattern of disruption of sedimentary strata has provided archaeologists with a lot of information. In the center of the structure, strata have been uplifted several hundred feet, resembling the central uplifts of the Copernicus lunar crater. In 2003, geologists from Ohio State University and the University of Glasgow (Scotland) corroborated the meteorite impact origin of the structure at The Serpent Mound. They had previously studied core samples collected at the site in the 1970s, providing them with a background of information pertaining to the site. Further analyses of the rock core samples indicated that the impact occurred during the Permian Period, about 248 to 286 million years ago. This has led archaeologists to believe that the topographic expression of this impact or the impact crater, has been completely erased by erosion.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, Clark and Marjorie Hardman published their finding that the oval-to-head area of the serpent is aligned to the summer solstice sunset. A depiction of the serpent mound appeared in The Century periodical in April 1890, drawn by William Jacob Baer.</p><br>
<p>According to archaeologist Brad Lepper, Serpent Mound may be a depiction of a Dhegihan Siouan origin story of the Great Serpent "Toothy Mouth”, lord of the Beneath World, who impregnated the First Woman.</p><br>
<p>According to Woodward and McDonald&#39;s interpretation:</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley fascinated many across the country, including Frederic Ward Putnam of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University. Putnam spent much of his career lecturing and publishing on the Ohio mounds, specifically the Serpent Mound. When he visited the Midwest in 1885, he found that plowing and development were destroying many of the mounds, removing significant history of these cultures and their burial sites. In 1886, with help from a group of wealthy women in Boston, such as the patroness of The Glass Flowers, Mary Lee Ware, Putnam raised funds to purchase 60 acres (240,000 m) at the site of The Serpent Mound in hopes to ensure its preservation. Along with The Serpent Mound, the purchase also contained three conical mounds, a village site, and a burial place. The Serpent Mound is now listed as a "Great Wonder of the Ancient World" by National Geographic Magazine.</p><br>
<p>The mound was originally purchased on behalf of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum. In 1900, the land and its ownership were granted to the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society (a predecessor of the present Ohio Historical Society). The Ohio Historical Society designated the Arc of Appalachia Preserves system, a project of Highlands Sanctuary, Inc., as the managing agency of Serpent Mound from 2010 until March 2021. In March 2021, The Ohio History Connection took back active management of the site. Following an instance of vandalism in 2015, more security cameras and protective gates were added to ensure the protection of the site and surrounding area.</p><br>
<h3>Excavation</h3><br>
<p>During excavation of The Serpent Mound archaeologists uncovered pipes, points, and earspools from the Hopewell culture as well as Gorgets and points from the Adena culture.</p><br>
<p>After raising sufficient funds, Putnam returned to the same site in 1886. He worked for four years to excavate the burial sequence contents of both The Serpent Mound and two nearby conical mounds. After completing his excavation and publishing his work, Putnam worked on restoring the mounds to their original state.</p><br>
<p>One of the conical mounds that was excavated by Putnam in 1890 yielded several artifacts of a principal burial during the period of the Adena people. Along with these findings, Putnam found and excavated nine intrusive burials in the mound through his discovery of an ash bed containing many prehistoric artifacts, north of the conical mound. After the excavation, the conical mound was reconstructed and currently stands just north of the parking lot at The Serpent Mound State Memorial.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, archaeologists took the opportunity to excavate the property prior to installation of utility lines at The Serpent Mound State Memorial. The excavations focused on three sides of the conical mound that had been excavated previously by Putnam in 1890. In addition to these concentrations of artifacts, an ashy soil horizon was excavated north of the conical mound, where archaeologists were able to uncover many prehistoric artifacts. It is believed that the ashy deposit of charcoal is the remainder of a Fort Ancient Culture ash bed. The wood charcoal from within the remnant bed was carbon dated back to the time of the Fort Ancient Culture, between the years of 1041 CE and 1211 CE. Given the results found through carbon dating, burials in the conical mound dated to the Early Woodland and Fort Ancient periods, suggestive of ritual reuse of the circum mound area and ash bed.</p><br>
<h3>Serpent Mound Museum</h3><br>
<p>In 1901, the Ohio Historical Society hired engineer, Clinton Cowan, to survey newly acquired lands. Cowan created a 56-inch by 72-inch (1,800 mm) map that depicted the outline of The Serpent Mound in relation to nearby landmarks, such as hills and rivers. Along with this, Cowan made specific geographical surveys of the area, discovering a unique astrobleme on which the mound is based. He found that the mound is at the convergence of three distinctly different soil types. Cowans information, in conjunction with Putnams archaeological discoveries, has been the basis for all modern investigations of The Serpent Mound.</p><br>
<p>In 1967, The Ohio Historical Society opened The Serpent Mound Museum that was built very close to the site of the mound. A pathway was constructed around the base of the mound, guiding visitors through and around the site. The museum features exhibits that include explanations of the effigy&#39;s form, description of the construction of the mound, and the geographical history of the area. The museum also features an exhibit on the Adena culture that historically, they credited as the creators of the mound.</p><br>
<p>In March 2002, A digital GIS map of Ohio&#39;s Great Serpent Mound was created by Timothy A. Price and Nichole I. Stump.</p><br>
<p>Fort Crawford was an outpost of the United States Army located in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, during the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The army&#39;s occupation of Prairie du Chien spanned the existence of two fortifications, both of them named Fort Crawford. The first of was occupied from 1816 to 1832, the second from 1832 to 1856. Both of the forts formed part of a string of fortifications along the upper Mississippi River that also included Fort Snelling near Saint Anthony Falls in Minnesota, and Fort Armstrong in Rock Island, Illinois. Fort Crawford was also associated with a string of forts built along the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway, which included Fort Winnebago in Portage, Wisconsin and Fort Howard in Green Bay, Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>The site of the second fort has been preserved and holds the Fort Crawford Museum, located in the Second Fort Crawford Military Hospital. This is a 1930s reconstruction of the hospital serving the second fort. This building contains the only surviving building fragments of either fort, and it was designated a USA National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<h2>First Fort Crawford</h2><br>
<p>The USA Army established a presence in Prairie du Chien during the War of 1812, when it built Fort Shelby on St. Feriole Island in the Mississippi River, which was part of the town separated by a marshy bayou. On July 19, 1814, Fort Shelby was captured by British forces and renamed Fort McKay. The British would continue to occupy Prairie du Chien until 1815, after the Treaty of Ghent restored the pre-war border between the United States and British Canada. When the British retreated from the city, they burned Fort McKay rather than give it back to the Americans.</p><br>
<p>Following the completion of Fort Crawford, the garrison was engaged primarily in peacekeeping between the new white settlers arriving in the region and the region&#39;s historic Native American tribes. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, a former USA Indian Agent, was among the early commanders at the fort. The United States conducted several negotiations with American Indians at Fort Crawford during the 1820s. One of the largest Indian councils in USA history was held at the fort in 1825, when over 5000 representatives of nearly a dozen Native American nations gathered to discuss and sign the first Treaty of Prairie du Chien.</p><br>
<p>Because of the first Fort Crawfords location alongside the Mississippi River, diseases such as malaria and dysentery were common among the troops. They did not understand the role of mosquitoes and sanitation in these diseases. In addition, the forts wooden walls rotted because of seasonal flooding that took place nearly every spring. The post took meteorological observations in 1822. In 1826, after a major flood, the garrison at Fort Crawford was ordered to leave Prairie du Chien and reinforce Fort Snelling in Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>During 1827, while no troops remained in Prairie du Chien, a group of hostile Winnebago Indians led by chief Red Bird murdered a family of settlers near the abandoned fort. This incident was the start of the Winnebago War of 1827. The federal government ordered the return of soldiers to Prairie du Chien. Shortly afterward, the Army decided that the first Fort Crawford was no longer habitable. In 1828 a decision was made to build a new fort on higher ground. Maj. Stephen W. Kearny, commanding officer at the time, surveyed the area and chose a site for the new fort upon a hill near the Mississippi River&#39;s eastern bank.</p><br>
<h2>Second Fort Crawford</h2><br>
<p>The construction of the second Fort Crawford began in 1829 under the direction of the new commander, Col. Zachary Taylor, later elected as President of the United States. The new forts location on the mainland in Prairie du Chien was much more floodproof. In addition, to make the fort more weather-proof, it was decided to construct the structure using quarried limestone rather than wood. Use of this material and delays in federal funding resulted in delays to complete the new fort; it was not finished until 1835. Troops in Prairie du Chien were unable to fully occupy the new forts barracks until 1832, and in the meantime remained at the first Fort Crawford.</p><br>
<p>Army surgeon Dr. William Beaumont did his best to keep the troops healthy. Beaumont would later achieve fame for a series of experiments on human digestion which he conducted at locations across the United States. Fifty-six of these experiments were conducted at Fort Crawford hospital, and allowed Beaumont to draw conclusions on the effects of temperature and emotion on the digestive process.</p><br>
<p>As the second fort&#39;s barracks were being completed in 1832, the Black Hawk War broke out in Illinois, and the troops at Fort Crawford were called to defend pioneer settlements. After the Battle of Bad Axe near present-day Victory, Wisconsin, Chief Black Hawk surrendered to Col. Zachary Taylor at Fort Crawford. Black Hawk was imprisoned at the fort until he was escorted by Lt. Jefferson Davis to St. Louis, Missouri. Davis, who had been assigned to Fort Crawford in 1831, was later elected as President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>While assigned to Fort Crawford, Davis met and fell in love with Sarah Knox Taylor, the daughter of his commanding office Zachary Taylor. Colonel Taylor disapproved of the relationship between Davis and his daughter, as he felt the life of an Army officer was too hard on wives and families. In 1834 Davis was reassigned to Fort Gibson in Oklahoma. Shortly afterward, Davis resigned his commission in order to pursue his relationship with Sarah in Prairie du Chien. Upon discovering that Zachary Taylor still would not consent to their marriage, the couple eloped to Kentucky, where Davis married Sarah Taylor in 1835.</p><br>
<p>In 1835-1836 the garrison at Fort Crawford was assigned to build a road between Fort Crawford and Fort Winnebago in Portage. The route they chose for the road is now followed by USA Highway 18 eastward from Prairie du Chien towards Madison, Wisconsin over Military Ridge, which is so named because of the military road which followed its crest. After the road was completed and the Ho-Chunk people were relocated from Wisconsin to Minnesota, the fort had little use. It was abandoned in 1849. In 1855 Fort Crawford was reoccupied when rumors circulated of an impending uprising among the remaining Native Americans, but no such event occurred. Troops left the fort for the last time on June 9, 1856.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, the fort housed part of the Swift United States Army General Hospital.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Crawford Museum</h2><br>
<p>Except during the American Civil War, when the fort was used as both a recruitment center and hospital for Union soldiers, Fort Crawford was left unoccupied between 1856 and 1933. In 1933, the Daughters of the American Revolution began work on reconstructing a portion of the fort&#39;s hospital, while clearing away the remaining parts of the dilapidated fort to allow for other development.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s, the reconstructed fort hospital was transformed into a museum of medical history called the Fort Crawford Museum of Medical Progress. The museum featured exhibits on the experiments by Dr. Beaumont and other medical innovations. It was operated by the Wisconsin Medical Society until 1995. In 1996, the museum was donated to the Prairie du Chien Historical Society. It was converted into a museum of local history, called the Prairie du Chien Museum at Fort Crawford. While the fort&#39;s hospital, which is registered as a National Historic Landmark, still houses exhibits related to Dr. Beaumont and medical history, adjacent buildings are now filled with exhibits on other aspects of Prairie du Chien history.</p><br>
<p>Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia is an important early-American cemetery. It is the final resting place of Benjamin Franklin and his wife, Deborah. Four other signers of the Declaration of Independence are buried here, Benjamin Rush, Francis Hopkinson, Joseph Hewes, and George Ross. Two additional signers of the Declaration of Independence, James Wilson and Robert Morris, are buried at Christ Church just a few blocks away.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery belongs to Christ Church, the Episcopal church, which was founded in 1695 and served as a place of worship for many of the most notable participants in the American Revolution, including George Washington. The burial ground is located at 5th and Arch streets, across from the Visitors Center and National Constitution Center in Center City Philadelphia. The Burial Ground was opened in 1719, and is still an active cemetery. The Burial Ground is open to the public for a small fee, weather permitting; about 100,000 tourists visit each year.</p><br>
<h3>Ben Franklin gravesite</h3><br>
<p>When the burial ground is closed, one can still view Benjamin Franklins gravesite from the sidewalk at the corner of 5th and Arch Streets through a set of iron rails. The bronze rails in the brick wall were added for public viewing in 1858 by parties working at the behest of the Franklin Institute, which assumed the responsibility of defending Franklins historic ties to Philadelphia after prominent Bostonians criticized the citys maintenance of the grave and erected a Franklin statue there. Leaving pennies on Franklins grave is an old Philadelphia tradition.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>Other famous people buried at Christ Church Burial Ground include:</p><br>
<p>John Andrews, (1746-1813), fourth Provost of the University of Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Michael Woolston Ash (1789–1858), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Samuel John Atlee (1739–1786), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769–1798), grandson of Benjamin Franklin, printer and publisher of the Aurora newspaper</p><br>
<p>Sarah Franklin Bache (1743–1808), daughter of Benjamin Franklin</p><br>
<p>William Bainbridge (1774–1833), Navy hero of War of 1812 and captain of the USS Constitution"</p><br>
<p>Francis Biddle (1886–1968), former USA attorney general</p><br>
<p>James Biddle (1783–1848), Commodore in United States Navy</p><br>
<p>Thomas Bond (1713–1784), co-founder (with Benjamin Franklin) of Pennsylvania Hospital, the nation&#39;s first hospital</p><br>
<p>Paul Busti (1749-1824), Agent General of the Holland Land Company</p><br>
<p>Major General George Cadwalader (1806–1879), American Civil War general</p><br>
<p>John Cadwalader (1805–1879), congressman and judge</p><br>
<p>Matthew Clarkson (1733–1800), mayor of Philadelphia</p><br>
<p>Joseph Clay (1769–1811), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Tench Coxe (1755–1824), Continental Congress delegate</p><br>
<p>William Henry Drayton (1742-1799), Continental Congress delegated and signer of the Articles of Confederation</p><br>
<p>John Dunlap (1747–1812), printer of the Declaration of Independence</p><br>
<p>Lewis Evans (c.1700–1756), cartographer and surveyor</p><br>
<p>Tench Francis, Jr. (1730-1800)</p><br>
<p>David Franks (1740–1793), aide-de-camp to General Benedict Arnold during the American Revolutionary War</p><br>
<p>Samuel Hardy (1758–1785), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Michael Hillegas (1729–1804), first Treasurer of the United States</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hopkinson (1709–1751), father of Francis Hopkinson, president of the Philosophical Society, and one of the founders of The Library Company of Philadelphia</p><br>
<p>John Inskeep (1757–1834), mayor of Philadelphia</p><br>
<p>Major William Jackson (1759–1828), Revolutionary War officer and secretary of the Constitutional Convention</p><br>
<p>Thomas Lawrence, five-time mayor of Philadelphia</p><br>
<p>Major General Charles Lee (1732-1782), controversial Revolutionary War officer and second-highest ranking general after George Washington from 1776 to 1778.</p><br>
<p>Charles Mason (1728–1786), astronomer and surveyor who laid out the Mason–Dixon line in 1763</p><br>
<p>George A. McCall (1802–1868), United States Army brigadier general and prisoner of war during the American Civil War</p><br>
<p>William M. Meredith (1799–1873), United States Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>Philip Syng Physick (1768–1837), known as the "father of modern surgery"</p><br>
<p>John Hare Powel (1786-1856), Pennsylvania State Senator and agriculturalist</p><br>
<p>Samuel Powel and his wife Elizabeth Willing Powel</p><br>
<p>Henry C. Pratt (1761–1838) prominent Philadelphia businessman and builder of Lemon Hill</p><br>
<p>Matthew Pratt (1734–1805) American colonial era portrait painter</p><br>
<p>Col. Isaac Read (1739-1777) Virginia revolutionary and commander of the 1st Virginia Regiment, who died of disease during the Revolutionary War</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Rush (1746–1813), signer of the Declaration of Independence and founder of Dickinson College, known as "the father of American psychiatry"</p><br>
<p>Annis Boudinot Stockton (1736–1801), poet</p><br>
<p>Philip Syng (1703–1789), silversmith who created the Syng inkstand and early co-founder with Benjamin Franklin of several organizations</p><br>
<p>Henry Tazewell (1753–1799), USA Senator</p><br>
<p>Commodore Thomas Truxtun, commander of the USS Constellation</p><br>
<p>William Tuckey (1708–1781), composer</p><br>
<p>John Goddard Watmough (1793-1861), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Charles Willing, (1710–1754), three-term mayor of Philadelphia</p><br>
<p>Anne Willing Francis (1733-1812) wife of Tench Francis and daughter of Charles Willing</p><br>
<p>The McKinley National Memorial in Canton, Ohio, United States, is the final resting place of William McKinley, who served as the 25th president of the United States from 1897 to his assassination in 1901. Canton was a significant place in McKinley&#39;s life; he lived there, practiced as an attorney, and conducted his political campaigns from the town.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial Association, contributions</h2><br>
<p>Following McKinleys funeral, several of his closest advisors, including George B. Cortelyou, William R. Day of Canton and Ohio Senator Mark Hanna, met to discuss the location of a proper memorial to serve as a final resting place for the former president. It was from this meeting that the McKinley National Memorial Association was formed and Theodore Roosevelt chose the first Board of Trustees, with recommendations from the Presidents widow, Ida Saxton McKinley. The Association chose a site often visited by President McKinley which he once suggested that a monument be erected on the site to honor soldiers and sailors from Stark County killed in American wars.</p><br>
<p>By October 10, 1901, the Association issued a public appeal for $600,000 in contributions for the construction project. Ohio Governor George Nash supported the effort by proclaiming McKinleys birthday in 1902 as a special day of observance by the states schools. On that day school children contributed to the memorial fund in large numbers by bringing in their pennies. In June 1903 contributions reached $500,000, and the Association invited people to submit design ideas for the proposed memorial. Contributions arrived from foreign nations, notably Great Britain.</p><br>
<h2>Designs, construction</h2><br>
<p>Over sixty designs were submitted, and Harold Van Buren Magonigle of New York City was selected as the winner of the competition. Magonigle envisioned a cross-hilted sword with a mausoleum located at the junction of the blade, guard, and hilt. The Long Water (a five-tiered reflecting pool which was 575 feet long) and main steps would form the handle of the sword. This design combined the cross of a martyr with the sword of a President who had acted as commander-in-chief during wartime.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the memorial began on June 6, 1905, when Magonigle removed the first shovel of soil from the site. By November 16 the cornerstone was laid in an official ceremony attended by the former First Lady, Ida Saxton McKinley, and other family members. More than 35,000 cubic yards (27,000 m³) of soil were added to create four terraces coinciding in height and pitch with the four runs of steps in the main staircase. The steps are 50 ft wide and arranged in four flights of 24. Another 12 steps take visitors into the monument. In total, there are 108 steps from ground level to the top of the monument. The interior walls consist of Tennessee marble.</p><br>
<p>The 9-1/2 foot tall bronze statue depicting President McKinley delivering his final public address at Buffalo, New York, on September 5, 1901 was created by sculptor Charles Henry Niehaus. It is based on a photograph of the President taken by White House photographer Frances B. Johnston at the Pan-American Exposition the day before his assassination.</p><br>
<h2>Ceremony</h2><br>
<p>The McKinley National Memorial dedication on September 30, 1907 was one of the most memorable events in Cantons history. President Theodore Roosevelt joined other dignitaries to observe a grand parade from the review stand at Public Square in downtown Canton. In the dedication ceremony, Supreme Court Justice William R. Day, President of the McKinley National Memorial Association and a former member of McKinleys cabinet, delivered a narrative of events leading to the dedication. United States Poet Laureate James Whitcomb Riley read a memorial poem he wrote in honor of the fallen president. Finally, President Roosevelt, the principal speaker of the day, addressed the crowd, highlighting McKinley&#39;s career. Mayor of Canton at the time, Arthur Richard Turnbull, also attended along with Ohio Governor Harris. The coffins of the President and First Lady are entombed above ground in double sarcophagi of green granite.</p><br>
<h2>Maintenance, re-dedication</h2><br>
<p>After the dedication the McKinley National Memorial Association continued to exercise administrative control of the monument, but it eventually became difficult for the Association to maintain the structure and the grounds. On October 20, 1943 the property was transferred to the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, which is now the Ohio History Connection. In 1951 the State of Ohio completed a major rehabilitation to the site, including filling in the Long Water. The work was completed in time for a commemoration of the 50th anniversary of President McKinley&#39;s death. A re-dedication of the Memorial was held on September 16, 1951.</p><br>
<p>The McKinley National Memorial returned to local control in 1973 when the property was transferred to the Stark County Historical Society. After five years of restoration work and enhancement of the grounds the McKinley National Memorial was rededicated on September 29, 1992. The William McKinley Presidential Library and Museum, also operated by the Stark County Historical Society, is located adjacent to the memorial.</p><br>
<p>The Park Row Building, also known as 15 Park Row, is a luxury apartment building and early skyscraper on Park Row in the Financial District of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The 391 ft, 31-story building was designed by R. H. Robertson, a pioneer in steel skyscraper design, and engineered by the firm of Nathaniel Roberts. The Park Row Building includes 26 full floors, a partial 27th floor, and a pair of four-story cupolas. The architectural detail on the facade includes large columns and pilasters, as well as numerous ornamental overhanging balconies. J. Massey Rhind sculpted several ornamental details on the building, including the balconies and several figures atop the building.</p><br>
<p>The Park Row Building was developed by the Park Row Construction Company as an office building between 1897 and 1899. It used a steel frame and elevators to make it one of the worlds tallest buildings at the time. It was constructed over a period of two years and nine months. Upon completion, about 4,000 people worked at the Park Row Building, with tenants such as the Associated Press and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company. Until the completion of the Singer Building in 1908, it was the citys tallest building and the worlds tallest office building. The Park Row Building was used as an office structure until the early 2000s, when it was converted to residential use. Today, the Park Row Building consists of 339 luxury apartment units, two penthouse apartments, ground floor retail, and office suites located in the buildings historic cupola space.</p><br>
<p>Upon its completion, the Park Row Building received praise from the general public, although architectural critics reviewed the building more harshly. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission gave city landmark status to the Park Row Building in 1999, and the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Park Row Building is in the Financial District of Manhattan, just south of New York City Hall, City Hall Park, and the Civic Center. The Park Row Building&#39;s original developers had been unable to acquire the corner lots at Ann Street and Park Row and at Ann Street and Theatre Alley.</p><br>
<p>The building has a frontage of 104 ft on Park Row, 20 ft on Ann Street, and 48 ft on Theatre Alley. It is immediately adjacent to 25 Park Row to the northeast. Other nearby buildings include 5 Beekman Street to the east, the Woolworth Building to the north, St. Paul&#39;s Chapel to the west, and the Bennett Building to the south. In addition, 41 Park Row, 150 Nassau Street, the Morse Building, and the Potter Building are across Beekman Street to the northeast.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building was designed by R. H. Robertson, a pioneer in steel skyscraper design, and engineered by the firm of Nathaniel Roberts. Roberts&#39;s chief draftsman, George Shea Dayton, was also highly involved in the design. John Downey was hired as the general contractor; T. P. Galligan was the foundation contractor; J,B. & J.M. Cornell were the iron contractors; and Dawson and Archer were the masonry contractors. The total cost to build the skyscraper was $2.4–2.75 million (equivalent to $– million in ).</p><br>
<p>The building has 26 full floors, a partial 27th floor, and a pair of four-story towers on the 28th through 31st floors. It has a total height of 391 ft. Counting the 56 ft flagpoles that were formerly installed atop the towers, the total height upon the buildings completion was 447 ft, making it one of the worlds tallest buildings at the time.</p><br>
<h3>Form and facade</h3><br>
<p>The ground level of 15 Park Row occupies its entire lot. However, the center of the southwestern elevation (facing the eastern corner of Park Row and Ann Street) contains a light court so the upper floors resemble a backward, warped "E", with the "spine" running along the northeastern facade. Another light court to the east faces the corner of Theatre Alley and Ann Street. The two four-story towers are capped with copper-clad domes. The design is reminiscent of the double-towered Baroque churches of Europe, as well as the church of the Monastery of São Vicente da Fora of Lisbon. The towers were easily distinguished on the city&#39;s 20th-century skyline.</p><br>
<p>The facade contains decorative elements only on the elevations facing Park Row and Ann Street. Due to its location along the middle of the block on Park Row, the building was designed with elements of both a freestanding tower and an infill building. Because of the modification, the "base" of the Park Row elevation is perceived as containing either two or five stories.</p><br>
<h4>Park Row elevation</h4><br>
<p>The Park Row elevation is split into three vertical sections. The outer sections, or "end pavilions", each contain two window openings on the first through fourth stories, and three openings on the fifth story and above. The inner section is split into five bays with a single window on each bay, and above the fifth story, is slightly recessed behind the outer sections.</p><br>
<p>The first and second stories are largely a commercial storefront with bronze-and-glass infill, though two granite Doric-style pilasters from the original design remain extant, at the extreme outer ends of this elevation. The rest of the first and second stories was originally articulated with Doric pilasters and columns. The main entrance is composed of three glass-and-bronze doors underneath a glass-and-bronze transom, within a black Belgian granite surround.</p><br>
<p>The third and fourth stories are clad with rusticated limestone. These floors both contain nine bays, and there is a belt course separating these stories. There are four large console brackets outside the third story, supporting large female figures on the fourth story; these brackets flank the third-outermost windows on either side. The brackets were designed by J. Massey Rhind and depict several facets of commerce. A small balustrade runs above the five center bays on the fourth story. The fifth story is clad with smooth limestone and has a large cornice with a frieze above it. There are recessed panels flanking the end pavilions on the fifth story, as well as between each of the five center bays on that story.</p><br>
<p>Above the fifth story, the end pavilions are clad with brick that is patterned to look like rusticated stone. On the end pavilions, there are balconies on the 10th, 18th, and 27th floors, each supported by four brackets and highly ornamented. Keystones above the 10th story windows of the end pavilions are ornamented with lions heads. In the center section, terracotta pedestals separate each bay of the 6th story, supporting pilasters that span the 7th through 9th stories. Pilasters also separate each of the center bays on the 11th–13th, 14th–16th, and 18th–21st floors, while rectangular panels separate the 17th-floor center windows; each set of pilasters is separated by friezes. Angled balconies extend from the center bay on the 11th and 23rd floors. A decorative band extends horizontally between the 22nd and 23rd floors. The windows on the 23rd floor contain thick pedestals that support terracotta Doric columns spanning the 24th through 26th stories. A cornice with lions-heads ornamentation rises above the 26th story. The ceiling of the 27th story is lower within the towers than in the space between the towers.</p><br>
<h4>Towers</h4><br>
<p>Above the end pavilions are a pair of circular four-story towers spanning the 28th through 30th stories. Both towers have three visible stories, as well as a fourth story in cupolas that surmount both towers. On each tower, there are cornices above the 29th story, as well as four octagonal piers, one at each corner, supporting the 30th-story dome. The tops of the towers both formerly supported one-story-tall finials.</p><br>
<h4>Other elevations</h4><br>
<p>The Ann Street elevation is 20 ft wide. At ground level is a service entrance with Doric pilasters on each side and a wave molding above it. There are two windows on the second floor with a Doric pilaster between them, and a cornice and frieze above the 2nd floor. There are rusticated limestone blocks on the 3rd through 5th floors, which have two windows each, and a molding above the fifth floors. On the 6th through 27th floors, there are three windows on each floor and balconies on the 10th, 18th, and 27th floors.</p><br>
<p>The remaining elevations, which are made of brick and contain very little ornamentation, are visible from the street. The northern elevation contained many window openings nearer the Park Row side and fewer nearer the Theatre Alley side. The southern and eastern elevations, as well as the light court facing southwest, have single, double, or triple windows set within a bare brick facade. These elevations were originally painted in a cream color, the same color as the Park Row and Ann Street facades. Eight steel beams, each with a depth of 48 in, span the light court.</p><br>
<h3>Foundation</h3><br>
<p>The foundations are sunken to a depth of 34.33 ft. Underneath the subbasement level are 3,900 Georgia spruce piles, each 20 ft deep with a 12 in diameter, driven into wet sand. The piles descend to below the water table. The underlying sand layer was removed to a depth of 1 ft above the top of the piles, and then concrete was poured into the space until it reached to the top of the piles. Afterward, granite blocks were placed above the poured concrete and a grillage of 12 in I-beams was laid atop the granite blocks. Each pile was capped by brick piers and a granite capstone, and the cellar floor was brought to the same depth as the granite capstones so that the grillage beams could be easily maintained.</p><br>
<p>The depth of the piles was influenced by the construction of Robertson&#39;s previous project at 150 Nassau Street, which used a similar technique to build the foundation, and is located two blocks northeast of the Park Row Building. In the earlier project, pilings had been carried to a deeper level, but the sand was highly compacted below a depth of 20 feet. The excavations were almost the same level as the adjacent, now-demolished St. Paul Building.</p><br>
<p>The centers of the piles were spaced 16 in apart beneath the vertical columns, and 24 in apart elsewhere.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<h4>Structure</h4><br>
<p>The building contains about 8,000 ST of steel and 12,000 ST of other material, chiefly brick and architectural terracotta. The skeleton is made of steel manufactured by Carnegie Steel Company. Two uninvolved companies examined 890 steel-bar samples to determine if the steel was strong enough for use in the building, accepting 870 of these samples. The exterior wall columns are carried 2 ft above the roof beams, connected by belt courses. All of the structural columns in the building, both interior and exterior, are covered with a 4 in layer of brick. Box and lattice girders, each of which are 36 in deep, connect the columns at the walls.</p><br>
<p>Floor areas ranged widely from 10,000 ft2 at the base to 400 ft2 in each of the towers. The floors rest atop open-web floor girders and use both concrete arches and hollow-tile arches as well as a concrete-arch system. Most of the floor beams are made of pairs of I-beams, which range in thickness from 10 to 15 in. The 27th floor has a roof and walls made of vertical I-beams, with terracotta infill. The roof was waterproofed with five layers of hot asphalt alternating with four layers of paper.</p><br>
<p>When the building was completed, thirteen elevators were provided in total. These consisted of one freight elevator for the subbasement through 26th floor; one elevator shared by passengers and freight between the 1st and 27th floors; four passenger elevators for the 1st through 27th floors; five passenger elevators for the 1st through 26th floors; and two passenger elevators connecting the 26th floor to each of the towers. The freight elevators were housed in a rectangular shaft near the Park Row entrance, while the passenger elevators were arranged in a semicircular layout. The tower elevators were smaller than the buildings other elevators and are no longer extant. These elevators were manufactured by Sprague Electric, and were one of the companys last major installations in New York City; this model quickly became unpopular after the Park Row Buildings opening. There were also two dumbwaiters provided for the restaurant at the top of the building. Upon the buildings opening, the passenger elevators were described as being able to accommodate 20,000 passengers per day, or 100,000 on a typical workweek.</p><br>
<h4>Interior spaces</h4><br>
<p>The outer lobby design dates from 1930 and has a terrazzo floor; a pink-marble wall with black-marble bases; a plaster cornice; and an octagonal ceiling lamp. The main lobby is connected to the outer lobby via a pair of bronze-and-glass doors and is irregular in plan. The walls and floors are similar in design to the outer lobby. The ceiling is made of plaster with ornate decoration and deep coffers, contains a Greek cornice, and is supported by a row of square piers through the center of the lobby.</p><br>
<p>On the building&#39;s northern side, there are two staircases above the second floor, with cast-iron risers, marble treads, and wrought-iron railings with wooden handrails. As arranged, each floor contained numerous small offices, as well as a semicircular elevator lobby on the north side with mosaic floor tiles. From the elevator lobby, passageways led west and east to a stair and a north–south passageway. Another hallway connected to the northern end of the easterly passageway, leading southeast and then south to the offices overlooking Theatre Alley. The building contained 950 offices, each with a capacity of about four people. At the top of the building was a restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Much of the original detail in the southern tower remains. A spiral stair made of cast-iron connects the 28th through 30th floors, surrounding a curved elevator shaft with cast- and wrought-iron doors. A staircase leads from the 30th to the 31st floor and contains alternating steps for one&#39;s left and right feet.</p><br>
<p>15parkrowElevators.JPGElevators</p><br>
<p>15parkrowLOBBY.JPGLobby</p><br>
<p>15parkrowStairwell.JPGStairwell</p><br>
<p>15parkrowTurret.JPGInterior of one of the towers</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Starting in the early 19th century and continuing through the 1920s, the surrounding area grew into the city&#39;s "Newspaper Row&quot several newspaper headquarters were built on Park Row, including the Potter Building, the New York Times Building, the New York Tribune Building, and the New York World Building. Meanwhile, printing was centered around Beekman Street, less than one block north of the Park Row Building. By the late 19th century, technological advances in elevator technology and steel framework enabled the construction of taller office buildings, particularly in Lower Manhattan. Park Row was particularly favored because skyscrapers on the street could be readily seen from afar, which in turn was due to the lack of tall buildings in City Hall Park, west of Park Row. Between 1890 and 1908, the number of buildings in Lower Manhattan above ten stories increased from six to 538.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>The Park Row Building was envisioned as an entirely speculative development, and from the start, was intended to be the world&#39;s tallest office building. R. H. Robertson was employed to create designs for the building, the first plans for which were publicized in March 1896. The skyscraper was to be erected by the Park Row Construction Company, a company operated by Belmont.</p><br>
<p>Work started on October 20, 1896, and Ivins was concurrently asked to "retire" from the company in 1896 or 1897. The building was mortgaged for $2.25 million to the Equitable Life Assurance Society in mid-1897. During construction, the Park Row Building&#39;s engineers attempted to install concrete floor slabs, which were $20,000 cheaper and 4,500 ST lighter than the more established hollow-tile floor technology. The New York City Board of Examiners opposed the use of concrete floors, giving no explanation for their refusal, and the builders sued and won the right to install concrete floors in December 1897. Because construction had already begun, the Park Row Building used both types of floors. Subsequently, the existing tile arches were found to be defective, exposing some of the structural steelwork, and had to be reinstalled. At the time, tile arches were relatively common since they protected the steelwork, even though they were not a structural feature. The Park Row Building was completed on July 20, 1899, after two years and nine months of construction.</p><br>
<h3>Office use</h3><br>
<p>At 391 ft, the Park Row Building was the citys tallest building upon its completion, overtaking the previous record holder, the St. Paul Building, by 76 ft. The Park Row Building was the tallest office building in the world, but not the tallest structure. The Park Row Construction Company transferred the buildings ownership in 1901 to the Park Row Realty Company, also operated by Belmont.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the building&#39;s completion in 1899, approximately 4,000 people worked there as was the first office of the recently organized Associated Press. The Park Row Building also had several tenants who engaged in suspicious activity, such as a bucket shop in 1901, a get-rich-quick scheme in 1903, and a gambling ring in 1904. Belmont built an eight-story edifice on 3 Park Row, the lot that he had purchased to preserve the views from the Park Row Building, in 1906. The next year, Belmont turned over the Park Row Building, 3 Park Row, and several other properties to British banker Nathan Rothschild for $7 million.</p><br>
<p>The Park Row Building and 3 Park Row were sold to Frederick Brown in July 1923 for $5 million. Brown immediately resold the buildings to Kenneth W. McNeil of the McNeil Coal Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut. In October 1924, McNeil sold the buildings to Bernard Dorf in exchange for the Theodore Roosevelt Apartments on the Bronx&#39;s Grand Concourse, in a sale worth $12 million. Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the building went into receivership, and the Federal Securities Corporation bought the property. W. Irving Moss bought the building at auction in 1930 for $2.9 million, and it was resold the next year to Charles W. Crosby. Clinton and Russell were hired in August 1930 to renovate the lowest two floors for $300,000, and the project was completed by early 1931. In addition to replacing the facade, Clinton and Russell restored the interior spaces and added commercial space on the first floor.</p><br>
<p>During the later 20th century, more tenants moved in, representing a variety of fields. These included Patterson Brothers, hardware dealers; Universal National Bank, New York Citys second black-controlled bank; and The Legal Aid Society. The building received few modifications throughout the remainder of the century, except for the replacement of windows and refurbishment of the lobbys original ceiling.</p><br>
<h3>Residential use</h3><br>
<p>Joseph and Rachelle Friedman, owners of electronic and music retailer J&R, bought 15 Park Row in the 1990s. At the time, J&R occupied several neighboring low-rise buildings on Park Row, and the Friedmans had demolished and replaced the neighboring building at the corner of Park Row and Ann Street. By 2000, plans were developed for a thorough renovation of the entire structure. The 1st through 10th floors would remain as commercial space, while everything above the 10th floor would be converted into 210 residential units, ranging from studio apartments to two-bedroom suites. Fogarty Finger and H. Thomas O&#39;Hara restored the interiors. The initial renovations and residential conversions were completed by 2001, and the first tenants moved in during that May. However, the building was shuttered after the September 11, 2001, attacks and the resulting collapse of the World Trade Center; when the building reopened in March 2002, nearly half of the 70 tenants did not return, while there were 62 units available. The pair of apartments in the cupolas at the 28th through 30th floors were not renovated, and were offered for sale as unfurnished units in 2013.</p><br>
<p>In the 2000s and early 2010s, J&R took up most of the storefronts along the block of Park Row that included 15 Park Row, with a sales space at the ground floor and mezzanine of the building. By 2013, J&R was planning to expand to five floors and knock down the walls separating 15 Park Row from 1 Park Row. However, J&R closed permanently the following year. The 3rd through 10th floors were subsequently converted for residential use as well. By 2018, the building had 332 apartments, with five more under construction, two of which were planned for the towers atop 15 Park Row.</p><br>
<p>Atlas Capital Group bought the Park Row Building from the Friedman family in January 2021 for about $140 million. By early 2022, residents had raised complaints that the buildings elevators, heat, water, and gas services sometimes did not work properly. That March, chef Todd English agreed to lease 22,000 ft2 in the buildings lower stories and open a restaurant there. Atlas obtained a $136.5 million loan from Berkshire Residential Investments in mid-2022 to fund improvements to the Park Row Building, but the ongoing rent strike meant that the building provided enough income for only 30 percent of the loan payments. Furthermore, an environmental assessment in 2022 had discovered that the dust in the building had large amounts of several toxic substances.</p><br>
<h2>Notable incidents</h2><br>
<p>On May 26, 1918, Harry H. Gardiner climbed 15 Park Row to raise money for the American Red Cross. A crowd of 50,000 people watched until he touched the golden ball at the top of one of the flagpoles. Gardiner then climbed back down; the event took two hours in total. A similar climb took place on September 8, 1918, when Steve Peterson climbed the building to raise money for the Free Milk for France Fund.</p><br>
<p>At 4:20 a.m. on May 3, 1920, anarchist Andrea Salsedo fell from the fourteenth floor of 15 Park Row. He was being held with Roberto Elia by the Justice Department in connection with a series of bombings that had occurred in New York City, Boston, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Paterson, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh. A leaflet entitled "Plain Words", signed by the "Anarchist Fighters", was found at the sites, and because of an aberrant "S" in the printing, the authorities tracked down the print shop where both Salsedo and Elia worked. They were held at 15 Park Row for eight weeks with limited external communication. When Salsedo fell, the anarchists claimed he was thrown, while the police claimed he jumped.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>Criticism from the architectural community was harsh because of the lack of comparable structures at the time. The unnamed critic described the cupolas as "insignificant terminations which add nothing", in contrast to the top stories of the St. Paul Building, which they felt was well designed. However, the critic also praised Rhinds figures on the Park Row Building as compared with the "impossible realism" of Karl Bitters figures on the St. Paul Building&#39;s facade. In a 1908 article in The New York Times, a French architect, Augustin-Adolphe Rey, wrote that "one side of it is an entirely bare wall—what difference does it make how the other sides are treated?" Critic Jean Schopfer called the building "detestable", as compared with other skyscrapers like the "mediocre" St. Paul Building or the "interesting" American Surety Building. Negative criticism highlighted the composition of the facade as well. In 1898, the Engineering News said that the building was influenced by "no established style of architecture". Architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler stated in 1897 that he believed skyscrapers should be divided into three horizontal layers but that "Mr. Robertson declines to recognize even this convention" in general.</p><br>
<p>The Park Row Building also had admirers, including the photographers Charles Sheeler and Alvin Langdon Coburn, who took pictures of the undecorated side walls of the building and the shadows made by its unusual shape. Scientific American, in 1898, praised Robertsons design as having a "very satisfactory effect", in that the facade was able to "clothe the skeleton; with a mantle of stone and glass that shall appear diversified, dignified and appropriate". Author H. G. Wells described the building as one of the "splendid fountains of habitation" present in the city at the beginning of the 20th century. Munsey&#39;s referred to the building as "a city and a world within four towering walls...a footprint of the twentieth century".</p><br>
<p>The Park Row Building was also depicted in several media works. Sheeler included the building in the short documentary film he made with Paul Strand, Manhatta (1921). It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 16, 2005.</p><br>
<p>Elm Springs is a two-story, brick house built in 1837 in the Greek Revival style. It is located just outside Columbia, Tennessee, United States. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 and has served as the headquarters for the Sons of Confederate Veterans since 1992.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1837 by brothers James and Nathaniel Dick, wealthy New Orleans cotton merchants, as a gift for their sister, Sarah Todd. Sarah and her husband, Christopher Todd, lived in Elm Springs for the rest of their lives. After their deaths, the property went to their daughter, Susan Todd. She was the wife of Abraham M. Looney, a prominent attorney in Maury County and a Tennessee State Senator.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, Looney was an outspoken southerner and served in the Confederate States Army as a captain in command of Company H, 1st Tennessee Infantry which Sam Watkins of "Company Aytch" fame was a member. Looney was later promoted to lieutenant colonel. In November 1864 Confederate units of the Army of Tennessee began the march north for Nashville in the ill-fated Franklin-Nashville Campaign. The Union Army, which had occupied Maury County for several months, was preparing defensive positions ahead of the oncoming Confederate troops under General John B. Hood in a line of defense extending from the Mooresville Pike to the Mount Pleasant Pike. As Union forces under the command of General John M. Schofield began their hasty withdrawal from Columbia, they began destroying important buildings along the line of withdrawal by fire as a defensive tactic, and many of Maury Countys antebellum homes were destroyed. Elm Springs anchored the eastern flank of their line and was slated for destruction as the last Union troops left Columbia. Responding to pleas from local citizens, Confederate Brigadier General Frank C. Armstrong dispatched a squad of mounted infantry to ensure the safety of Lieutenant Colonel Looneys home and property. The house likely would have burned down if it had not been for the arrival of Confederate troops who extinguished the fires they found.</p><br>
<p>The Akin family acquired the property about 1910 and in 1985 the Gillham family purchased it and restored it to near original state. On March 4, 1946, Mr. Howard Blocker and his wife, Rebecca T. Blocker purchased the estate. Mr. Blocker owned Columbia Paving and was a prominent member of the city. Mr. Blocker passed away and Mrs. Blocker held the home until the 1970&#39;s. In 1992 it became the headquarters of the Sons of Confederate Veterans and the Military Order of the Stars and Bars. Together, the two organizations co-published a magazine, Confederate Veteran. In late 2005, the organizations separated over political differences and the Military Order of Stars and Bars moved from Elm Springs to Daphne, Alabama.</p><br>
<p>The North Christian Church is a church in Columbus, Indiana. Founded in 1955, it is part of the Christian Church . The church building of 1964 was designed by Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen  and completed in 1964. Saarinen&#39;s father Eliel Saarinen had designed the First Christian Church in Columbus.</p><br>
<p>The building is hexagonal in shape, with a central metal spire that is 192 ft high. Below the spire, there is an oculus that admits light into the main level. The sanctuary is located at the center of the building, with the Lord&#39;s Table located in the center of the sanctuary. Rows of pews surround the altar in a hexagon, reflecting the idea that worship should be a central aspect of the life of the congregation. The lower level contains classrooms, an auditorium, a kitchen, and an activities area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1955, 43 members of the First Christian Church, designed by Eliel Saarinen, decided to found a new church affiliated with the Disciples of Christ. After some time of worshiping in each other&#39;s homes, in 1956 they purchased 5+1/2 acre of land with the help of Irwin Miller. Although Miller wanted to hire Eero Saarinen to design the new church, he believed it was important that the congregation choose the architect themselves:</p><br>
<h2>Symbolism in design</h2><br>
<p>Saarinen believed that modern churches had lost the monumentality of traditional cathedrals because expansions with Sunday schools, gymnasiums, and kitchens took away from the significance of the church itself. He wanted to design a building that returned to the model of a traditional church, while still using Modern architecture that served the needs of the congregation.</p><br>
<p>His compromise was to move the school, meeting rooms, auditorium, and kitchen to a hidden basement, so that the only visible part of the church above ground was the sanctuary. Space for the basement was carved out of the earth in a hexagonal shape, reflecting the sanctuary above it. This emphasized the importance of the church itself and isolated the sanctuary as the most important part of the building.</p><br>
<p>He was inspired by the steep steps at Angkor Wat and Borobudur, where the visitor has to interact with the architecture and work to reach the sanctuary. He thought that building an entire church on one level made religion "too easy", and took away from the spiritual experience of going to church. Therefore, he chose to elevate the sanctuary of the church so people had to climb up a set of stairs to reach it. This way the church also stood out from its residential neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Sanctuary</h3><br>
<p>The act of entering a church was important to Saarinen as well, so the environment changes to reflect the change of attitude one has when entering a sacred space. The grey slate floors, dark mahogany pews, and eerie natural lighting instill a sense of awe in the visitor. The primary light source into the sanctuary is the oculus at the base of the spire, directly above the Communion table. This focus of light draws attention to the center of the room, where the Communion takes place.</p><br>
<p>The room was designed as a space where people can gather in unity and harmony in an enclosed spiritual world. The Communion table, consisting of twelve pedestals symbolic of the twelve disciples, is placed on a tiered platform. The highest pedestal at the end of the table represents Christ, and hold a silver chalice and loaf of bread for the service. It is the central focus of the sanctuary because it is an important part of the Disciples of Christ service. The congregation sits around it facing each other as a community.</p><br>
<p>The pulpit, choir loft, and a Holtkamp organ is situated opposite the main entrance into the sanctuary. The organ is the last of its kind designed by Walter Holtkamp Sr.</p><br>
<h3>Spire</h3><br>
<p>Saarinen designed the long, angular, symmetrical sanctuary and the 192 ft tall spire in a single stroke:</p><br>
<p>From the outside of the building, the spire symbolized reaching upwards to God; on the inside, it created an enclosed soaring space for the congregation. The church was intended to remove man from the earthly world, so instead of being anchored to the ground with solid rectangles, Saarinen used pointed angular forms that hover and point to the heavens. At the top of the spire is a 5 ft gold leaf cross, symbolizing Christ&#39;s sacrifice.</p><br>
<h3>Baptistery</h3><br>
<p>The baptistery is a small space, decorated with a sunburst design, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. It is separate from the main sanctuary, designed to give the ceremony more dignity. The separation between the baptistery and sanctuary also recalls the tradition of the Early Christian church, when only those who were baptized could attend Communion.</p><br>
<h2>Influence</h2><br>
<p>The North Christian Church was one of the most copied buildings from the mid-twentieth century. Although it did not generate much interest during Saarinen&#39;s life, the decades that followed produced copies of the building all across the America. It was the last building Saarinen designed before his death, and he thought it was one of his greatest achievements:</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<p>As the membership has decreased and upkeep costs increased, the congregation began to have difficulty raising the necessary funds for maintenance of the structure. In April 2018, the Indiana Landmarks historic preservation organization added the church to its list of 10 Most Endangered Indiana landmarks to raise awareness of the problem and find ways to save it.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, Landmark Columbus received a 2019 Keeping it Modern Architectural Conservation Grant from the Getty Foundation for the iconic church. With this grant, Landmark Columbus—together with Prudon & Partners, Reed-Hilderbrand, Bryony Roberts Studio, Enrique Ramirez, ICR-ICC and others—developed a conservation management plan to provide the historical context and strategic guidance necessary for the church&#39;s long-term upkeep.</p><br>
<p>On July 16, 2022, the congregation held a "Celebration of Life" service for the building. The church is now permanently closed and no longer allowing tours of the building.</p><br>
<p>On April 15, 2024, the Bartholomew County Library Board voted to accept the church as a gift from the former North Christian Church congregation.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of the Incarnation is an Episcopal cathedral in Garden City, New York. It is the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of Long Island.</p><br>
<p>Built to the memory of Alexander Turney Stewart, the Cathedral of the Incarnation is the only cathedral in the United States funded by a single person, and the only one that is built in memory of a single individual. The cathedral is a product of Gothic Revival architecture.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral is historically known for its music ministry, led by Canon Lawrence Tremsky (Northwestern University, M.M.). The Men & Boys Choir, which originated during the 19th century, was the reason that the train station in the area was initially constructed - to transport the boys from their homes in Brooklyn or Manhattan to rehearsals and services. During the 1930s, the cathedral formed the first American cathedral girls&#39; choir - known as the Schola Cantorum. The choirs sing a repertoire of choral music, from plainsong to modern works, selected carefully to coincide with the themes of the season. Evensong is sung on the first Sunday of each month in the traditional English cathedral model (Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, an anthem, and Anglican chant psalms). Special seasonal liturgies include traditional "Lessons & Carols" one or two Sundays before Christmas.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral is notable for its stained glass windows and icons. The mural icon of Christ Pantokrator, permanently installed at the cathedral, was crafted by the American artist Guillermo Esparza.</p><br>
<p>A new organ was constructed by the firm Casavant Frères Limitée in 1986 on the 110th anniversary of the death of A. T. Stewart.</p><br>
<p>Tours are offered upon request, as well as the cathedral being open from 9:00 am to 4:00 pm (Wednesday - Sunday).</p><br>
<p>There are a variety of services held throughout the weekday noon services Tuesday - Thursday, Sundays, 8:00am Traditional Mass, the Family Mass at 9:15 (held outdoors during the summer under the tent, and is pet-friendly) and the 11:15 Choral Eucharist featuring music by the cathedral choirs (10am Sung Mass during the summer).</p><br>
<p>Three Saints Bay  is a 9-mile -long inlet on the southeast side of Kodiak Island, Alaska, north of Sitkalidak Strait. It is 60 mi southwest of Kodiak. The Three Saints Bay Site is an archaeological site, the location of the first Russian settlement in Alaska, Three Saints Harbor . The settlement was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov. The main settlement was moved in 1792 to Pavlovskaya Gavan , now known as the city of Kodiak. The Three Saints Bay Site was declared a National Historic Landmark by the United States in 1978.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although Russian fur hunters had established temporary shore stations in Alaska earlier, they intended the Three Saints site to be a permanent colonial settlement. The site was poorly chosen, for the hillside above the shore area was too steep to build on, and the shore area was too small for a substantial settlement. When it was visited in 1790, it was described as a cluster of small structures (probably barabaras), with a population of about fifty men and a small number of women. The site was harmed by subsidence and a probable tsunami in the wake of a 1788 earthquake. In 1791, Alexander Baranov began moving the main Russian settlement to the site of present-day Kodiak.</p><br>
<p>This original Russian site continued to be occupied as a smaller station of lesser importance until roughly the mid-19th century, at which time it was relocated to a site about 1.2 mi away.</p><br>
<p>Only a few remnants of the Russian occupation remain on the surface. These are mainly pits and rectangular depressions, indications of where structures were located, and some plants that are evidence of the small-scale agriculture which was practiced there. The settlement&#39;s cemetery was located to its southeast. Excavation at the site yielded evidence that it was built on the site of an older native settlement, dating to c. 100 BCE.</p><br>
<p>The Russian settlement site was listed on the United States National Register of Historic Places in 1972, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The bay was named for the harbor, in turn named after one of Shelikhov&#39;s ships. It was named for the Three Holy Hierarchs. It was reported by Petroff in the 10th Census in 1880.</p><br>
<p>The same area was later called Lyakhik Bay (Zaliv Lyakhik) by Captain Tebenkov. This was based on its Aleut name Liakik, probably from liak ("black-footed goose").</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Church is an historic church located at 57 Orange Street between Henry and Hicks Streets in the Brooklyn Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City; the Church House has the address 75 Hicks Street. The church was built in 1849–50 and was designed by Joseph C. Wells. Under the leadership of its first minister, Henry Ward Beecher, it became the foremost center of anti-slavery sentiment in the mid-19th century. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1961, and has been a National Historic Landmark since 1966. It is part of the Brooklyn Heights Historic District, created by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1965.</p><br>
<p>The church is a member of the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Plymouth Church was founded in 1847 by 21 transplanted New Englanders, who were part of a circle centered on the wealthy evangelical merchants Arthur and Lewis Tappan. Among them were noted businessmen such as Henry C. Bowen, John Tasker Howard, David Hale, and Seth Hunt. It was the third Congregationalist church to be organized in Brooklyn &ndash; then a separate city from New York. The site where the church building would be located was purchased from the First Presbyterian Church, which had been worshipping there since 1822, but which needed more space. It moved to a new site on Henry Street, a few blocks away.</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Churchs first pastor was Henry Ward Beecher, who became a leading figure in the abolitionist movement. His sister was Harriet Beecher Stowe, noted today as the author of the anti-slavery novel Uncle Toms Cabin (1852) that "helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War." The church itself became an important station on the Underground Railroad through which slaves from the South were secretly transported to Canada. Locally known as "the Grand Central Depot," slaves were hidden in the tunnel-like basement beneath the church sanctuary. The Rev. Charles B. Ray, an African-American living in Manhattan, and the founding editor of The Colored American newspaper, was quoted as saying, "I regularly drop off fugitives at Henry Ward Beecher&#39;s Plymouth Church in Brooklyn." Plymouth Church is one of the few active Underground Railroad congregations in New York still housed in its original location.</p><br>
<p>One of the main recurring events that garnered considerable public attention were Beecher&#39;s mock slave auctions. Imitating events like this in the South, Beecher would bring slaves into the sanctuary, auction them off to the highest bidder, and then set them free. The most famous case involved "Pinky", a 9-year-old slave girl who had escaped from Alabama. On February 5, 1860, in front of a crowd of 3000, Beecher started the bidding and a collection plate was passed around the congregation. When the plate with $900 and a golden ring reached the pulpit, Beecher picked up the ring and placed it on the finger of Pinky. He exclaimed, "Remember, with this ring I do wed thee to freedom." Sixty-seven years later, Pinky returned to Plymouth, now a well-educated woman named Rose Ward Hunt, and returned the ring Beecher had given to her.</p><br>
<p>In October 1859, the church offered Abraham Lincoln $200 for coming to Brooklyn and giving a lecture to the congregation. Lincoln accepted the invitation, traveled to Brooklyn and participated in church services on Sunday, February 26. Today a plaque marks the pew where Lincoln attended the service. Because of high demand, Lincoln&#39;s address was moved to Cooper Union, where a 25-cent admission fee was charged. Lincoln gave his famous anti-slavery speech before a capacity crowd of 1,500 on February 27, 1860, more than eight months before he was elected President.</p><br>
<p>In 1867, a group from Plymouth Church undertook a five-and-a-half month voyage aboard the steamer Quaker City to Europe and the Holy Land. Joining them as a journalist was the young Mark Twain. His satiric account of this pioneering tour group, The Innocents Abroad, was Twain&#39;s best-selling work throughout his lifetime.</p><br>
<p>In 1875, a history of rumored extramarital affairs by Beecher and his condemnation from the pulpit of Victoria Woodhull&#39;s advocacy of free love among other factors culminated in the "Beecher-Tilton Scandal Case". The highly publicized two-and-a-half-year-long case resulted in the disfellowshiping of aggrieved husband and church member Theodore Tilton, legal and church exoneration of the pastor, and condemnation of him by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and others including his younger half-sister Isabella Beecher Hooker.</p><br>
<p>Beecher died suddenly in 1887. He was succeeded by Lyman Abbott (1887-1899), a lawyer turned minister and religious journalist; Newell Dwight Hillis (1899-1924), who oversaw the completion of the Plymouth campus as it exists today; J. Stanley Durkee (1926-1940), a former President of Howard University; L. Wendell Fifield (1941-1955), a pastor of Seattles Plymouth Congregational Church widely known for his active role in civic affairs throughout the Pacific Northwest; and the Rev. Harry H. Kruener (1960-1984), Dean of the chapel at Denison University. In 1991, the Rev. Sharon Blackburn, who had served as associate pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, located a few blocks from Plymouth Church, became the first female minister in the churchs history, following the short tenures of the Rev. Frank Goodwin (1985–88) and the Rev. Richard Stanger (1988-1991).</p><br>
<p>In addition to Lincoln and Twain many other famous writers and activists spoke at Plymouth, including William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner, John Greenleaf Whittier, Clara Barton, Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Horace Greeley, and William Thackery. More recently, in February 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. preached a sermon on "The American Dream," echoed just months later in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC. Senator Hillary Clinton spoke at Plymouth in 2001, and two noted minimalist composers, Philip Glass and Charlemagne Palestine, gave concerts using Plymouth&#39;s Aeolian-Skinner organ.</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Church merged with the Congregational Church of the Pilgrims in 1934, and the resulting combined congregation was named Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims. The Congregational Church of the Pilgrims left its Richard Upjohn-designed church building, which later was designated a New York City Landmark as Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Catholic Church. The buildings stained-glass windows, including windows by Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, were moved to Plymouth Churchs nearby Hillis Hall. The church also displays a 40 lb piece of Plymouth Rock, from the traditional landing site of the Mayflower Pilgrims.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, the congregation voted against becoming part of the newly formed United Church of Christ, which came about through a merger of the Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church; it is now a member of the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches. The church reverted to its original name, "Plymouth Church", in September, 2011.</p><br>
<p>Today the congregation consists of about 425 members who form a covenant community. That means each member is bound to God and to every other member of the community by a solemn vow. Plymouth adapted the Salem (Massachusetts) Covenant of 1629. The church has used the Kansas City Statement of Faith as its own since its adoption by the Congregational Christian Churches in 1913. As a congregational church, each member is empowered to participate in the decision-making of the congregation. The church is actively supporting various anti-human-trafficking groups, the Mission School of Hope in Eastern Cameroon, Habitat for Humanity, the Hope Program, and Brooklyn anti-hunger initiatives.</p><br>
<p>On April 17, 2016, it was announced that the Rev. Brett Younger will be the 11th settled senior minister in Plymouth&#39;s 169-year history. He succeeds the Rev. David C. Fisher who retired in September 2013, after leading the Plymouth congregation for 9 years.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Built in 1849–50, Plymouth Church is an example of 19th century urban tabernacle architecture with italianate and colonial motifs. Its layout, influenced by the Broadway Tabernacle in Manhattan, was designed by Joseph C. Wells &ndash; who was later one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects. The barn-like church building, with its pews arranged in an arc before the pulpit, resemble more an auditorium or theater than what had traditionally been considered a church. This open design was adopted by many evangelical Protestant churches throughout the United States in the second half of the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1866, the church&#39;s original pipe organ was replaced by E. and G. G. Hook, which installed what was then the largest organ in the United States, expanded further by Aeolian-Skinner in 1937.</p><br>
<p>In 1907–09, the church installed stained-glass windows by the noted J&R Lamb Studios. This studio opened it doors in 1857 and is now the oldest existing studio of its kind in the US. The windows in Plymouth Church are unique in that they do not depict any biblical scenes. Instead they focus on the history of democracy in England and the US, with a particular emphasis on the influence of the Puritans, Pilgrims and Congregational Churches. In 1913 the family of John Arbuckle, a coffee merchant, donated money to create a large garden and the Classic revival parish house. The house and arcade which adjoin the building were designed by Woodruff Leeming.</p><br>
<p>The church garden, fronting on Orange Street and located between the Church House and the Sanctuary, contains a statue of Beecher and a bas-relief of Lincoln. Both were produced by famed sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who later created the Mount Rushmore National Memorial. An almost identical statue of Beecher is located less than a mile away, next to Cadman Plaza, in front of Brooklyn&#39;s historic Federal Building and Post Office.</p><br>
<p>The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 4, 1961,</p><br>
<p>Tours of the church, including its grounds, the Sanctuary, Hillis Hall, and the original Underground Railroad facilities, are available upon request. From 2000 to 2015, these tours were given by Lois Rosebrooks, the long-time director of history ministry services.</p><br>
<p>Bowles Hall is a coed residential college at the University of California, Berkeley, known for its unique traditions, parties, and camaraderie. Designed by George W. Kelham, the building was the first residence hall on campus, dedicated in 1929, and was California&#39;s first state-owned residence hall. It was built in 1928 with a $350,000 grant from Mary McNear Bowles in memory of her husband, Berkeley alumnus and University of California Regent Phillip E. Bowles. Mr. Bowles was said to have three loves: horses, horticulture and the University of California.</p><br>
<p>Although a university-operated residence hall, its male-only tradition, classic façade, partitioned four-man rooms, and common areas gave it a social, fraternity-like atmosphere. "Bowlesmen" have traditionally been a tight-knit group of students who regularly practice various traditions and rituals that are exclusive to the Hall. With its pale stone exterior, five-arch entry arcade, and crenelated tower, it was listed in 1989 in the National Register of Historic Places as an example of Collegiate Gothic architecture.</p><br>
<p>From 2006 to 2014, a group of former residents worked with Berkeley officials, planning the Hall&#39;s restoration and reconstitution as a co-ed residential college. Following a 14-month restoration in a public-private partnership, the Hall reopened in August 2016, welcoming female students for the first time.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<p>Designed by George W. Kelham, the building has eight levels comprising two-room suites and a common room (originally designed to house two, but now housing four). The Julien and Helen Hart Memorial Library was added to the building in 1939 through the gift of James D. Hart, their son, and their daughter, Ellen, and her husband, San Francisco architect and engineer Joseph Bransten. Hart was a professor of English and the editor of the Oxford Handbook of American Literature. Bowles Hall also sits on top of the Hayward Fault.</p><br>
<p>In order to avoid having the aging residence hall dismantled in the late 1980s, a group of Bowlesmen successfully petitioned to have the building added to the National Register of Historic Places (#89000195, 1989). The hall was also designated a City of Berkeley landmark on October 17, 1988, a mere 11 years after the first recorded "high five".</p><br>
<p>The hall earned LEED Silver certification in August 2017.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history – restoration</h2><br>
<p>The university administration attempted to dismantle Bowles Hall and build a new residence hall in its place, but this was deterred when Bowles Hall was entered into the National Register of Historic Places. In April 2001, food service in the dining hall was ended and the dining room made into a generic "recreation room." The dining hall had previously hosted popular barbecue dinners on Friday evenings.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, the Haas School of Business was planning to turn Bowles into an educational center and conference facility, but the university backed down from the decision. At about this time, a group of alumni formed the Bowles Hall Alumni Association, and then the Bowles Hall Foundation, with the aim of establishing Bowles Hall as a modern residential college.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the Regents of the University of California approved a plan that enabled the Bowles Hall Foundation, a 501c(3) entity, to renovate and operate Bowles Hall as a residential college under a 45-year lease. The Foundation developed a plan to completely renovate and refurnish Bowles Hall. In June 2015, formal agreements with the Regents of the University of California were executed. The restored Hall reopened in August 2016. It serves 188 undergraduate students, three live-in faculty members, and several graduate residents. It is considered on-campus housing for the purposes of financial aid.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the late 1940s and the 1950s, Rose Gilmore, the widow of a Berkeley professor who was looking for her own calling at Cal, fulfilled the position of Head Resident.</p><br>
<p>Women have been welcomed as residents since 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Norman Mineta (&#39;53) - United States Secretary of Transportation (2001&ndash;2006)</p><br>
<p>Don Bowden - First American to run four-minute mile</p><br>
<p>Les Richter - Pro Football Hall of Fame linebacker for the Los Angeles Rams</p><br>
<p>Gale Gilbert - Former professional football quarterback</p><br>
<p>Dyke Brown (&#39;36) - Rhodes scholar, founder of the Athenian School</p><br>
<p>Walter A. Haas Jr (&#39;37) - CEO (1976–2005) and chairman (1981–1989) of Levi Strauss & Co, 1983 Cal Alumnus of the Year</p><br>
<h2>Movie appearances</h2><br>
<p>Boys and Girls - Known as Carmen Hall in the movie.</p><br>
<h2>Bowles Hall drinking song</h2><br>
<p>Traditionally the Cal Band parades from nearby Memorial Stadium through the campus and streets of Berkeley after a home football game. The band will play in front of Bowles Hall during their tour, playing "By" for the Bowlesmen. The tradition of playing "By" for Bowles Hall is said to have begun back when the entire football team lived there. The band would play for the players as they walked back to their residence hall after the game. However, when the football team was relocated, the band decided not to play in front of Bowles Hall. Subsequently, some of the men of Bowles lay down in the road, blocking the Cal Band from playing, until the band was forced to oblige them.</p><br>
<p>We&#39;re the men of Bowles Association,</p><br>
<p>Coming here from over all the nation.</p><br>
<p>Drinking here together one and all,</p><br>
<p>We lift our voices loud for Bowles Hall!</p><br>
<p>(Chorus)</p><br>
<p>Here&#39;s to Bowles Association.</p><br>
<p>Drink it down and then,</p><br>
<p>Drink a toast to home sweet home,</p><br>
<p>Of California men. Rah! Rah! Rah!</p><br>
<p>Fill your glasses to the brim,</p><br>
<p>And lift them in the air.</p><br>
<p>And drink a toast to Bowles Association,</p><br>
<p>And the Golden Bear.</p><br>
<p>Men of Bowles are gathered here together,</p><br>
<p>Toasting everything from girls to weather.</p><br>
<p>But the very greatest toast of all,</p><br>
<p>Is the one that we now give to Bowles Hall!</p><br>
<p>(Chorus)</p><br>
<p>--Joseph Ehrman III, 1948</p><br>
<p>The Corcoran Gallery of Art is a former art museum in Washington, D.C., that is now the location of the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design, a part of the George Washington University.</p><br>
<p>Founded in 1869 by philanthropist William Wilson Corcoran, the gallery was one of the earliest public art museums in the United States. It held an important collection that became concentrated in American art. In 1890, it started its art school. Its Beaux-Arts style building on The Ellipse was opened in 1897. Due to a prolonged economic shortfall, the Gallery failed in October 2014; pursuant to its founding charter, its art school and building transferred to GWU and the 19,456 works in its collection were distributed to other public museums and institutions in Washington, D.C., primarily the National Gallery of Art.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The Corcoran School of the Arts and Design at George Washington University, part of the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences, hosts exhibitions by its students and visiting artists and offers degrees in fine art, photojournalism, interaction design, interior architecture, and other fields of artistic study. Prior to the Corcoran Gallery of Art&#39;s closing, it was one of the oldest privately supported cultural institutions in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Founded in 1890, the Corcoran School began with 40 students and two faculty members. It was later renamed the Corcoran College of Art + Design in the 1990s, where it coexisted with the gallery. The museum&#39;s main focus was American art.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, after decades of financial problems and alleged mismanagement, the Corcoran was dissolved by court order. A new non-profit was established by the trustees and the Corcoran&#39;s $2 billion, 17,000-piece art collection was given away for free to the National Gallery of Art (NGA). Works the NGA did not acquire were donated to cultural institutions throughout the city and nation. The Corcoran College of Art and Design, its $50 million endowment, and its $200 million historic 17th Street building were given to George Washington University, which renamed it the Corcoran School of the Arts & Design.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Founding</h3><br>
<p>When the gallery was founded in 1869 by William Wilson Corcoran, the cofounder of Riggs Bank, it was one of the first fine art galleries in the country. Corcoran established the gallery, supported with an endowment, "for the perpetual establishment and encouragement of the Fine Arts." While an independent institution, the Corcoran was the oldest and largest non-federal art museum in the District of Columbia. Its mission was "dedicated to art and used solely for the purpose of encouraging the American genius."</p><br>
<p>The Corcoran Gallery of Art was originally located at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, in the building that now houses the Renwick Gallery. Construction of that building started before the Civil War. The building, near completion, was used by the government as a warehouse during the Civil War. It was finally completed in 1874 and the gallery opened to the public. The 93 works on display at the gallery were described in detail by M.E.P. Bouligny in her tribute to Corcoran published in 1874.</p><br>
<p>By 1897, the Corcoran Gallery collection outgrew the space of its original building. A new building was constructed, designed by Ernest Flagg in a Beaux-Arts style. The 135,000 square feet (12,500 m) building was built to house an expanded Corcoran collection in addition to the nascent school, which had been formally founded in 1890. The new building features a pair of bronze statues, the Canova Lions, at its entrance. These lions were purchased at auction by the Corcoran Gallery in 1888 and placed in front of the museum at its original location. The iconic bronze castings were moved to their current location in 1897 when the museum moved to its final building at 17th Street and New York Avenue.</p><br>
<h3>Years of growth</h3><br>
<p>In 1928, the art collection of former Senator William A. Clark joined the Corcoran in a new wing designed by Charles Adam Platt, which was inaugurated by President Calvin Coolidge. For decades, the Corcoran examined the possibility of adding on a final wing which would complete the campus footprint. These plans abruptly ended in 2005 after a Frank O. Gehry-designed wing was scrapped due to lack of funding, and the remainder of the available property was sold to a private developer.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the gallery continued to display its main collection from Corcoran, Clark, and a few select major donors. At its peak, the museum owned a significant collection including work from Rembrandt Peale, Eugène Delacroix, Edgar Degas, Thomas Gainsborough, John Singer Sargent, Claude Monet, Mariano Fortuny, Pablo Picasso, Edward Hopper, Willem de Kooning, Joan Mitchell, Gene Davis, and many others. Space was always a challenge; only a small percentage of the gallerys permanent collection could be displayed in the confines of the 17th Street gallery, which shared its roughly 140,000 ft&sup2; with the art school. Donelson Hoopes served as curator from 1962 to 1964. During the 1980s museum attendance swelled and the Corcorans events and programs were imitated by other institutions.</p><br>
<h3>Mapplethorpe controversy</h3><br>
<p>In 1989, the Corcoran Gallery of Art agreed to host a traveling solo exhibit of Robert Mapplethorpes works. Mapplethorpe showed a new series that he had explored shortly before his death, Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment, which was curated by Janet Kardon of the Institute of Contemporary Art in Philadelphia. Several Trustees of the Corcoran and USA Representative Dick Armey (TX) and Senator Jesse Helms (NC) were horrified when the sexually explicit works were revealed to them; the museum board of trustees succumbed to pressure and cancelled the exhibit the night before its opening, which had already been announced to its members through an exhibition preview invitation. The Coalition of Washington Artists organized a demonstration to protest the Corcoran Gallerys cancellation of the exhibit. An estimated 700 people attended the demonstration.</p><br>
<p>In June 1989, pop artist Lowell Blair Nesbitt became involved in the controversy over Mapplethorpe&#39;s work. It was at this time that Nesbitt, a longtime friend of Mapplethorpe, revealed that he had a $1.5 million bequest to the museum in his will. Nesbitt publicly promised that if the museum refused to host the exhibition he would revoke his bequest. The Corcoran refused and Nesbitt bequeathed the money to the Phillips Collection instead.</p><br>
<p>After the Corcoran cancelled the Mapplethorpe exhibition, the underwriters of the exhibition went to the nonprofit Washington Project for the Arts, which showed the controversial images in its own space from July 21 to August 13, 1989, to large crowds. The 1990 NEA Appropriations Bill included language against "obscene" work.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the controversy, more than a dozen artists canceled exhibitions, funding and membership declined, and staff resigned</p><br>
<p>in protest. By the end of 1989 Orr-Cahall had resigned as museum director.</p><br>
<h3>Final years</h3><br>
<p>In its final years, the museum and its affiliated Corcoran College of Art and Design together had a staff of about 140 and an operating budget of about $24 million. Revenue came from grants and contributions, admissions fees, tuition, membership dues, gift shop and restaurant sales, and an endowment worth around $30 million. In February 2001, two AOL executives (Robert W. Pittman and Barry Schuler) and their wives donated $30 million to the museum, its largest single donation since its founding.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, following years of negligence and financial mismanagement, a lawsuit was brought by the law firm Gibson Dunn on behalf of the group Save the Corcoran against the trustees. After two weeks of hearings, Judge Okum ordered the Corcoran, the city&#39;s oldest independent museum, dissolved. The trustees gave the Corcoran College of Art and Design the $200 million Beaux Arts building, and gave $50 million to George Washington University to renovate the facility and operate the school programs. The 17,000-piece art collection, worth $2 billion, was donated to the National Gallery of Art. At the beginning of 2018, the director of the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design officially disclosed plans for the National Gallery of Art to bring art back to the second floor of the Flagg building.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>Flagg also designed the interior of the building. Upon entering the building&#39;s front doors on 17th Street, you first enter the 170 x atrium. The vast space, separated into three connected sections, consists of forty limestone columns and twin skylights (to light the intended display of sculptures). The Beaux-Arts-inspired room rises two interior stories and has housed exhibit space and other uses.</p><br>
<p>Directly across the atrium from the front entrance stands the grand staircase, leading to the second floor. Low rise stairs, 16 ft wide, are watched over by six statues on pedestals atop marble platforms, and lead to a landing halfway to the second floor. Hold onto the brass-topped railing for balance. From the grand staircase, one can access the rotunda and the second story level of the atrium, including a bridge that heads across the atrium back towards the direction of the front door. Gallery space exists throughout.</p><br>
<p>Back on the first floor, three galleries lead from the atrium (originally there were seven). The second floor originally had eight galleries. The rotunda came later, designed by Charles Platt in 1925. Forty eight feet wide, the rooms domed ceiling culminates in an oculus skylight. Reminiscent of the Pantheon, the space offers an exquisite entry to the buildings Clark Wing. An observer would access a marble-floored, square, dark staircase hall with wood panels to reach the Clark Wing galleries.</p><br>
<p>At the northern end of the building, the Hemicycles unusual shape fills the angle created by New York Avenue and 17th Street. The space is the auditorium, being 67 x with a 300-person capacity. The Salon Doré appears on the buildings opposite side. Also referred to as the "French Room", it displays intricate French decorations; it was designed in the early 1700s by Jean‐François‐Thérèse Chalgrin and was moved from Paris to the United States sometime before 1904.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, preservationists added the interior portions of the Corcoran Gallery to the National Register of Historic Places (the exterior had been listed in 1971). The interior nomination includes the grand staircase, atrium, rotunda, gallery, and other notable spaces.</p><br>
<p>Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument is a USA National Monument created to protect Mogollon cliff dwellings in the Gila Wilderness on the headwaters of the Gila River in southwest New Mexico. The 533 acre national monument was established by President Theodore Roosevelt through executive proclamation on November 16, 1907. It is located in the extreme southern portion of Catron County. Visitors can access the monument by traveling northbound from Silver City, New Mexico, 45 mi on NM 15.</p><br>
<h2>Cliff dwellings in New Mexico</h2><br>
<p>Considered by archaeologists to be upon the northernmost portion of the Mogollon peoples sphere of influence, the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument is home to two prominent ruins sites among a collection of smaller sites located within the Gila Wilderness inside the Gila National Forest. The landscape in the monument ranges in elevation from around 5700 to 7300 ft above sea level and follows the West Fork and the Middle Fork of the Gila River. The terrain around the ruins is rugged and arid, and contains steep-sided canyons cut by shallow spring rivers and mesas and bluffs forested with Ponderosa pine, Gambels oak, Douglas fir, New Mexico juniper, pinon pine, and alligator juniper (among others). The area geologic history stems from the Oligocene epoch and volcanic activity that subsequently covered the area with ash. The monument&#39;s hot springs are remnants of this volcanic history.</p><br>
<p>The monument consists of 553 acre and contains the remains of a Mimbres Culture community in various locations, two of which are most prominent. The namesake ruins&#39; developers made use of natural caves to build interlinked dwellings within five cliff alcoves above Cliff Dweller Canyon. The TJ Ruins are located on a bluff overlooking the Gila River. The Mogollon peoples are believed to have inhabited the region from between 1275 and into the early 14th century, during the Pueblo III Era. It is not known why the community was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists have identified 46 rooms in the five caves on Cliff Dweller Canyon, and believe they were occupied by 10 to 15 families. The "Heart-Bar Site" or the TJ Ruins (named for the former ranch from which the mesa takes its name) located on TJ Mesa are largely un-excavated.</p><br>
<p>Other ruins include Javalina House, about 1/3 mile above the main ruin, West Fork Ruin, currently under Highway 15 across from Woody Corral, Three Mile Ruin along the west fork of the Gila River, and middle fork of the Gila River at the 11-room Cosgrove Ruin. Dendrochronology (tree ring dating) determined that the wood used in the dwellings were cut between 1276 and 1287. The region provided for growing, gathering and hunting food.</p><br>
<p>To visit the namesake dwellings, visitors are required to hike a well-traveled 1 mi trail loop with several foot bridges over a stream. The entire walk takes about an hour. The hike begins at an elevation of 5,695 ft and ends at 5,875 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Modern history</h2><br>
<p>Though local Native American Indians were aware of the location of ruins, the first European contact with the Gila Cliff Dwellings was by Henry B. Ailman (an emigrant to New Mexico who was residing in Silver City at the time). In the summer of 1878, Ailman and several friends were summoned to serve for jury duty, and in an effort to avoid the summons, they organized a prospecting trip to the Gila River, where they subsequently came upon the site.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the following years, many visitors would study the dwellings. Soon the site became more accessible, and in the 1890s the Hill brothers had established a resort at the nearby Gila Hot Springs. The Hill brothers would begin the first tours to the ruins for their guests. In June 1906, Rep. John F. Lacey of Iowa and chairman of the House Public Lands Committee introduced a bill for the regulation of prehistoric sites. The Act for the Preservation of Antiquities, commonly known as the Antiquities Act, authorized the US President to set aside land that contained prehistoric and historic ruins by executive order.</p><br>
<p>These federal reservations were called national monuments and were to be managed by the Interior, Agriculture, and War departments, depending on which agency had controlled a particular site before it was withdrawn for preservation. In December 1906, Gila Forest Supervisor R. C. McClure reported to the chief forester in Washington, D.C. that the Gila Cliff Dwellings warranted preservation by the national government to avoid further removal of artifacts by hunters and other prospectors.</p><br>
<p>Several mummified bodies had been found at the Gila Cliff Dwellings location, though most were lost to looters and private collectors. In 1912, a burial ground was found; a mummified infant later referred to as "Zeke" was located. The discovery gained national attention and increased the monument&#39;s popularity and visitor numbers. In turn, additional improvements were made in the following years. The mummy is the only known mummy to be acquired by the Smithsonian from the monument. The first park ranger was Doc Campbell, an early settler to the region. He helped National Park Service crews stabilize the ruins. The Campbells still guide wilderness trips from their Campbells Post in nearby Gila Hot Springs.</p><br>
<p>Administration of the monument was transferred from the USA Department of Agriculture to the National Park Service on August 10, 1933, by Executive Order 6166. President Kennedy would later sign proclamation no. 3467, that added approximately 375 acre and contained the TJ site, as well as additional wilderness area. In the spring of 1975, the National Park Service and the USA Forest Service signed a cooperative agreement where the Gila National Forest is responsible for administration of the monument, but it returned to the NPS in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Monument exhibits and services</h2><br>
<p>A museum and visitor center is located at the monument near the TJ Ruins. The visitor center is jointly operated by the USA Forest Service and the National Park Service. The museum hosts exhibits of Apache and Mogollon artifacts, uncovered both in the surrounding wilderness and at the monument. Displayed items include a bracelet crafted from Glycymeris Bittersweet clam shells found by a student park ranger, Charles Grymko. Believed to have been brought via trade from the Gulf of California to Snaketown (an ancient village on the right bank of the Gila River on the modern-day Gila River Indian Community south of the village of Ahwatukee), the shell eventually was etched and drilled by Hohokam artisans. The bracelet is believed then to have made its way up the Gila River from Arizona to the Gila River community, again by way of trade.</p><br>
<p>Other nearby attractions include hot springs, associated ruins sites, national forest hiking trails and fishing along the Gila River and in the Gila Wilderness.</p><br>
<p>St. Paul&#39;s School is a 500-room brick edifice in the Village of Garden City, New York, United States. As of 2010, the building is not currently used.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>St. Pauls was built by Cornelia Stewart, widow of Alexander Stewart, and dedicated in his honor. This building is of High Victorian Gothic design. The architect was William H. Harris. The cornerstone was laid on June 18, 1879, with attended by Cornelia Stewart, her brother Charles Clinch, Henry Hilton, and Abram Newkirk Littlejohn, the first Episcopal Bishop of Long Island. It took James LHommedieu four years to complete construction of this massive E-shaped building. It was crowned with a slate roof and a clock and bell tower. There were laboratories, classrooms, libraries, several dining halls, kitchens, a large reception parlor, permanent workspaces for staff, a beautiful gothic chapel, with seating for 400, dormitory space for 300 students, with spacious interior apartments on the top floors for teachers.</p><br>
<p>It opened in 1883 as a military school for boys, owned by the Episcopal Diocese of Long Island. In 1884, the St. Pauls football team won the New York area championship. The school also had baseball and ice hockey teams. St. Pauls remained a military school for only 10 years, afterward becoming a college preparatory academy.</p><br>
<p>At the turn of the 20th century, headmaster Rev. Frederick Luther Gamage stated the schools mission to be to "develop manly, Christian character, a strong physique, and the power to think." During Father Gamages tenure, a benefactor, George Bywater Cluett, an owner of the Cluett, Peabody and Company, a collar and shirt making firm in Troy, New York, provided funds for a gymnasium to be constructed as a memorial to Cluett&#39;s son, Alfonzo Rockwell Cluett, who had been a student of Headmaster Gamage, approximately class of 1896, and after graduating from Yale University in 1900, died the following Christmas Eve of typhoid fever.</p><br>
<p>Approximately 1906, William Bradford Turner, a direct descendant of Massachuttes Bay Colony Governor William Bradford, enrolled at St. Paul&#39;s in the third form (i.e. ninth grade); Turner would later go on to posthumously win the Congressional Medal of Honor, being killed in World War I.</p><br>
<p>In 1907, Headmaster Gamage left St. Paul&#39;s, and some of its prestigious students, like Turner, and donors, like Cluett, went with him to found Trinity-Pawling School upstate. However, the school continued to prosper.</p><br>
<p>After the World Series finished in 1917, the pennant winning teams, the Chicago White Sox and New York Giants, came to St. Paul&#39;s to play an exhibition baseball game to entertain the soldiers of the United States Army Rainbow Division, which was encamped nearby in Garden City. Participants in that game for the New York Giants included Manager John McGraw, and Jim Thorpe. The White Sox players included those soon to be infamous in the Black Sox Scandal.</p><br>
<p>The brother of United States President Donald Trump, Fred Trump, graduated from St. Paul&#39;s in 1956. Their father, Fred Trump Sr., donated money to improve the soccer field, which was temporarily renamed Trump Field.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, a new gymnasium field house was built, and named for Father Nicholas Feringa, the former headmaster. At the opening, it was the largest indoor sports fieldhouse on Long Island, with four contiguous basketball courts. The New York Nets professional basketball team used it as their training facility, splitting the basketball complex with the students. Future Hall of Famer Rick Barry was on the Nets at that time, with the Nets using the same gym and the same locker rooms concurrently with the St. Paul&#39;s students.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, St. Pauls owner, the Episcopal Diocese of Long Island, entered bankruptcy, and being forced to sell its assets, St. Pauls shut down. The Village of Garden City negotiated a "friendly condemnation", and obtained the buildings and all 48 acres of land. The village has used the gymnasiums and athletic fields, but basic maintenance has been neglected.</p><br>
<p>The AIA Architectural Guide to Nassau and Suffolk Counties describes the building as having "poly-chromatic voussoir arched windows, elaborate cast-iron balustrades, and Dorchester stone trim." The building was selected in 2003 by the Preservation League of New York State as one of its "Seven to Save" endangered properties.</p><br>
<p>Saint Pauls featured prominently in the book published by then Presidents Donald Trumps niece, Mary L. Trump, Too Much and Never Enough, in which she explains that both of President Trumps brothers, her own father Fred Trump Jr. and her uncle Robert Trump were alumni of Saint Pauls. The book goes on to describe pranks by Freddie Trumps friends including one by Homer Godwin.</p><br>
<h2>Development and demolition</h2><br>
<p>In 1993, the building was sold to the Incorporated Village of Garden City. The residents of Garden City were unable to come up with a viable plan to use the school for a different purpose. The Mayor of Garden City appointed a committee to make recommend uses for the buildings which recommended that the property be redeveloped, and leased for 99 years to a private senior assisted living company. The proposal was controversial because there was no municipal use of the buildings and because the proposal increased the building footprint and decreased green space, as well as lack of significant tax revenues.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, Tishman Speyer Properties conducted a preliminary inspection and evaluation on the potential to adapt the St. Paul&#39;s buildings as the new Garden City High School. Tishman Speyer submitted four preliminary designs to the Garden City Board of Education for their consideration. The proposal was supported by many of the younger families; however, the Eastern Property Owners Association vigorously lobbied the Board of Education not to consider it out of fear it would cost more, and the Board of Education eventually took it off the table. Ironically, the alternative cost of renovating the Garden City Middle and High School subsequently proved to be even more.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, the Village Board of the Incorporated Village of Garden City voted to dedicate St. Pauls Schools 48 acre (194,000 m) site as parkland, with then Mayor Barbara Miller voting twice to break the tie of 4 board members in favor and 4 members opposed, on December 16. Removal of its designation as parkland would require the approval of the New York State Legislature.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, a Village-wide opinion poll was held, and the results were: Approve Demolition: 2,272 votes (45.4%); Approve Mothballing of Main Building: 1,857 votes (37.1%); Approve of the Avalon Bay proposal: 873 votes (17.5%). The total Voter Turnout was 5,002.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, an annex known as Ellis Hall, built in 1969 to provide additional school space, was demolished, although preservation plans included saving the annex.</p><br>
<p>Monument Avenue is a tree-lined grassy mall dividing the eastbound and westbound traffic in Richmond, Virginia, originally named for its emblematic complex of structures honoring those who fought for the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Between 1900 and 1925, Monument Avenue greatly expanded with architecturally significant houses, churches, and apartment buildings. Four of the bronze statues representing J. E. B. Stuart, Stonewall Jackson, Jefferson Davis and Matthew Fontaine Maury were removed from their memorial pedestals amidst civil unrest in July 2020. The Robert E. Lee monument was handled differently as it was owned by the Commonwealth, in contrast with the other monuments which were owned by the city. Dedicated in 1890, it was removed on September 8, 2021. All these monuments, including their pedestals, have now been removed completely from the Avenue. The last remaining statue on Monument Avenue is the Arthur Ashe Monument, memorializing the African-American tennis champion, dedicated in 1996.</p><br>
<p>In the wake of the protests that followed the murder of George Floyd in 2020, the Davis monument was torn down by protestors, while the Lee monument was ordered to be removed by Governor Ralph Northam. In July 2020, Richmond mayor Levar Stoney directed removal of the remaining Confederate monuments on city-owned land including J.E.B. Stuart, Stonewall Jackson, Matthew Fontaine Maury, the cannons marking the Richmond Defenses, and other monuments around the Richmond area. Public opinion regarding the removal or retention of the statues was mostly split in several polls down the middle, with other varying figures for retention with historical context or moving them elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Monument Avenue is the site of several annual events, particularly in the spring, including an annual Monument Avenue 10K race and "Easter on Parade", when many Richmonders stroll the avenue wearing Easter bonnets and other finery. Prior to 2020, at various times (such as Robert E. Lee&#39;s birthday and Confederate History Month), the Sons of Confederate Veterans gathered along Monument Avenue in period military costumes.</p><br>
<p>"Monument Avenue Historic District" includes the part of Monument Avenue beginning at the traffic circle in the east at the intersection of West Franklin Street and North Lombardy Street, extending westward for some fourteen blocks to Roseneath Avenue, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark District.</p><br>
<p>The American Planning Association selected Monument Avenue as one of the "10 Great Streets in America for 2007" based upon the corridor&#39;s historical residential design and craftsmanship, diversity of land uses, the integration of multiple forms of transportation, and the commitment of the community to preserve its legacy.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The former capital of the Confederacy, Richmond became a central location of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy mythos. The Southern economy was largely devastated due to the war; former Confederates therefore held onto their pride and demanded respect. Monument Avenue was conceived during a site search for a memorial statue of General Robert E. Lee after Lee&#39;s death in 1870. Richmond citizens had been wanting to erect statues for three Virginians who had helped defend the city (two of whom were killed in the defense). City plans as early as 1887 show the proposed site, a circle of land, just past the end of West Franklin Street, a premier uptown residential avenue at the time. The land was owned by a wealthy Richmonder, Otway C. Allen. The plan for the statue included building a grand avenue extending west lined with trees along a central grassy median, in accordance with the “City Beautiful” style of urban planning and civic design during this time. The plan shows building plots which Allen intended to sell to developers and those wishing to build houses on the new grand avenue.</p><br>
<p>On May 29, 1890, crowds were estimated at 100,000 to view the unveiling of the first monument, a massive memorial to Robert E. Lee.</p><br>
<p>It would take about 10 years for wealthy Richmonders and speculative developers to start buying the lots and building houses along the avenue, but in the years between 1900 and 1925 Monument Avenue exploded with architecturally significant houses, churches and apartment buildings. The architects who built on Monument Avenue practiced in the region and nationally, and included the firms of John Russell Pope, William Bottomley, Duncan Lee, Marcellus Wright, Claude Howell, Henry Baskervill, D. Wiley Anderson and Albert Huntt. Speculative builders such as W. J. Payne, Harvey C. Brown and the Davis Brothers bought lots and built many houses to sell to those not designing with an architect.</p><br>
<p>The street was once a favored residential area for Richmond&#39;s upper class. The Fan District section, in particular, is lined with large mansions from the end of the Gilded Age. The Museum District part of Monument Avenue includes a combination of large houses (especially in the 3100 block), apartment buildings, and smaller single-family houses. West of Interstate 195, Monument Avenue becomes a more typically suburban avenue, although it continues the wide lanes and expansive grassy median with a variety of trees through to its termination a little over two miles past the current city limits in Henrico County.</p><br>
<p>Through the decades, the avenue has had its ups and downs. As early as 1910, but mostly during the 1950s and 60s, many of the large homes were subdivided into apartments, or interior rooms and carriage houses were let to boarders as Richmonds upper class largely abandoned Monument Avenue for newer suburban neighborhoods in the West End many of which are outside the city limits in predominantly white Henrico County. A few houses were demolished to make way for parking lots or building expansions, and several modern additions were tucked between earlier existing buildings. But protections put in place by the city by designating Monument Avenue as an Old and Historic Neighborhood have helped maintain the integrity of the neighborhood. In 1969, a group was incorporated called The Residents and Associates for the Preservation of Monument Avenue, led by Zayde Rennolds Dotts (Mrs. Walter Dotts, Jr.), granddaughter of Beulah and John Kerr Branch, a banker who had commissioned a Jacobean mansion on Monument Avenue in 1914 by the firm of John Russell Pope. In 1970 the group changed its name to the Monument Avenue Preservation Society (MAPS).</p><br>
<p>From 1981 to 1988, just over 1 mi of Monument Avenue between Malvern Avenue (VA 197) and Arthur Ashe Boulevard (VA 161) was officially designated as unsigned State Route 418.</p><br>
<p>In August 2017, following the Unite the Right rally and a vehicle attack in Charlottesville, Virginia, Richmond Mayor Levar Stoney announced that the citys Monument Avenue commission would look at providing contextual markers around the Confederate monuments as an option for dealing with the issues raised by statues honoring men who fought to preserve slavery and fracture the Union. At that time, removal of such statues was not permitted at the local level under Virginia law. In April 2020, the Democratic Party took over the Virginia legislature and changed the law, allowing local jurisdictions to remove monuments other than in cemeteries and the Virginia Military Institute; the changes were to take effect in July 2020. On June 10, 2020, protestors tore down the statue of Jefferson Davis from its pedestal. On the first day the new law was in effect, July 1, 2020, Mayor Stoney had a State of Emergency extended to justify the removal of the statue of Stonewall Jackson by a city of Richmond contract, followed with the removal of the Maury statue and the defensive cannon display on July 2. Mayor Stoney then announced plans to remove a total of 11 Confederate memorials. There was an investigation into the awarding of the contract for removal by Stoney as political patronage, but Augusta County Commonwealth Attorney Tim Martin found because of the circumstances (where most contractors rejected bidding on the removal due to the perception of possible threats against their business for doing so), that the contracted contractor created a new company to carry out the work specifically to avoid those threats, and that the bid price was justified for the circumstances, nor was it connected to the mayors campaign at all, clearing Stoney and the contractor of any wrongdoing.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments</h2><br>
<p>Monument Avenue is home to the Arthur Ashe Monument, a memorial to Richmond native Arthur Ashe. Sculpted by Paul DiPasquale, it was unveiled on July 10, 1996.</p><br>
<p>The Avenue previously included several statues dedicated to Confederate military and political figures, including:</p><br>
<h3>Robert E. Lee Monument</h3><br>
<p>The Robert E. Lee Monument was located in the traffic circle at the intersection of Monument Avenue and Allen Street. Dedicated in 1890, the Lee Monument was the first and the largest of the street&#39;s monuments. It was removed on September 8, 2021 by the Commonwealth of Virginia following a state Supreme Court ruling. At the time it was removed, the Lee statue was the last existing Confederate monument on Monument Avenue.</p><br>
<h3>J.E.B. Stuart Monument</h3><br>
<p>The J. E. B. Stuart Monument was located in the traffic circle at the intersection of West Franklin Street and North Lombardy Street.</p><br>
<p>The statue of Stuart was removed by the City of Richmond on July 7, 2020. The empty pedestal stood until February 2022, when it too was removed, and the traffic circle has been made into a garden.</p><br>
<h3>Jefferson Davis Memorial</h3><br>
<p>The Jefferson Davis Memorial was located at the intersection of Monument Avenue and North Davis Street.</p><br>
<p>The statue was toppled on June 10, 2020, during the protests following the murder of George Floyd.</p><br>
<h3>Stonewall Jackson Monument</h3><br>
<p>The equestrian statue of Stonewall Jackson was located at the intersection of Monument Avenue and North Boulevard.</p><br>
<p>Mayor Stoney had the monument removed on July 1, 2020. In February 2022 the empty pedestal was removed and the site has been paved over, making it a "normal" traffic junction.</p><br>
<h3>Matthew Fontaine Maury Monument</h3><br>
<p>The monument of Matthew Fontaine Maury was located on Monument Avenue at Belmont Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The statue of Maury was removed on July 2, 2020, and the globe followed on July 9. The empty pedestal was removed in February 2022 and the site is now a garden.</p><br>
<h3>Arthur Ashe Monument</h3><br>
<p>Nearly a century after the original monuments were put in place, the Richmond community approved a statue of Arthur Ashe by Paul DiPasquale to be placed on Monument Avenue. The statues placement lacked a correlation between the tennis star and the Confederate leaders already represented on the Avenue. Some residents thought the monument should be placed at the Arthur Ashe Athletic Center. The monument became a significant discussion point in the city around the times of its commission and its unveiling. Many of the citys residents cited Ashe&#39;s distinguished place in the modern history of the city as a reason for inclusion, while some residents and other parties rejected it as inappropriate for Monument Avenue, which had contained only statues of men with a relationship to the Confederate States of America.</p><br>
<p>Ashes statue was the farthest one placed on the Avenue, situated in what is known as the Museum District, just west of the citys Fan district. Ashe stands, racket in hand, on a pedestal bearing the Biblical quote: “Since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which so easily ensnares us, and let us run with endurance the race that is set before us.”</p><br>
<h2>Controversy</h2><br>
<p>The Confederate memorials on Monument Avenue have been a source of controversy from time to time since they were first built. Opponents have pointed to their roots in the "Lost Cause" and Virginias "Massive Resistance" to racial integration of public schools to argue that the statues symbolize white supremacy and should be removed or revised. Proponents of preservation recognize the monuments as veterans memorials erected to commemorate the hundreds of thousands of Confederate soldiers and citizens who died fighting to defend Richmond during the Civil War. The removal movement gained momentum following a similar controversy with Charlottesville, Virginia&#39;s Robert E. Lee statue and the subsequent events of the "Unite The Right" rally on August 11–12, 2017.</p><br>
<p>In late 2017, Mayor Levar Stoney announced the formation of a "Monument Avenue Commission" that was chartered to solicit the public&#39;s input and ultimately provide recommendations on the future of the monuments. In mid-2018, the Commission issued its recommendations, calling for the removal of the Jefferson Davis monument while expressing a desire to attach signage "reinterpreting" the Lee, Jackson, Stuart and Maury monuments.</p><br>
<p>During the 2020 protests that erupted after the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, the statues again became a focal point in Richmond. They became a frequent site for both peaceful as well as violent protests. Throughout this period, the statues were covered in graffiti and surrounded with materials such as signs, artwork, candles, and flowers. Richmond-based artists Dustin Klein and Alex Criqui created Reclaiming the Monument, a series of light projections that transformed the Confederate statues at night, in particular the Robert E. Lee Monument. In June 2020, Governor Ralph Northam announced he had been working for a full year on plans to remove the Lee monument from the avenue. Immediately following Gov. Northams announcement, Richmonds Mayor Stoney announced plans to remove the other four Confederate statues along with seven additional related monuments throughout the city. The City of Richmond began work to remove the city-controlled statues, beginning with the Stonewall Jackson monument, on July 1, 2020. Matthew Maurys statue was removed on July 2, and J. E. B. Stuarts on July 7. The Lee Monument was removed by the Commonwealth of Virginia on September 8, 2021.</p><br>
<h2>Disposition of the monuments</h2><br>
<p>The statues are presently in an open-air industrial area in Richmond, whose location has been withheld. Richmond recently transferred ownership of the fallen memorials to the Black History Museum and Cultural Center of Virginia; it is now up to the institution to decide what to do with them.</p><br>
<p>In the fall of 2023, the Jefferson Davis statue will travel to Los Angeles, where it will be exhibited as part of a display of toppled Confederate art works.</p><br>
<p>The First Christian Church  is a church in Columbus, Indiana, United States, built in 1942. It was the first contemporary building in Columbus and one of the first churches in the United States to be built in a contemporary architectural style.</p><br>
<p>The building, designed by Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen, consists of a glass-fronted main hall, with a tower and bridge section. Interior details such as light fixtures, screen and furniture were designed by Saarinen&#39;s son Eero Saarinen (who would later design the North Christian Church in Columbus) and Charles Eames.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Plans for a new church</h2><br>
<p>A larger church was needed to accommodate the growing needs of the congregation between World War I and World War II. Linnie I. Sweeney, the wife of Reverend Z. T. Sweeney, and her brother W. G. Irwin first discussed plans for a Gothic or Early American church, but her son and his nephew J. Irwin Miller, who had been following an architectural appreciation course at Yale University, proposed the idea for a Modern church instead. Designing and building the church became a two-generation family affair.</p><br>
<p>The family was introduced to Eliel Saarinen through the Reverend&#39;s daughter Nettie Sweeney Miller, who became chairwoman of the building committee. Saarinen had only built one church before, in Estonia, and was apprehensive about the project until he heard the proposal for the building:</p><br>
<p>Saarinen, the son of a Lutheran pastor, was thrilled by the idea and agreed to design the building. He disliked overly indulgent and theatrical churches and believed Gothic and Georgian style churches were overdone and no longer relevant.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Rather than imitating an historic style with no personal relevance to Columbus, Saarinen chose to reflect the fundamentals of Christian faith in the church design, in an effort to unite the different denominations in the town. He believed Modern architecture was particularly appropriate for this form of Christianity – the church would be based on the fundamentals of religion and architecture and freed from traditional theology and style.</p><br>
<h3>Layout</h3><br>
<p>The church is divided into four major features: the East Wing, containing the church proper, the chapel, and the auditorium; the West Wing, containing part of the Bible school; the connecting bridge between the East and West Wings, containing the rest of the Bible school; and the tower. The building is divided this way to create a balanced mass that is lively, yet restful.</p><br>
<h3>Sunken terrace</h3><br>
<p>The area between the East and West wings is set 8 feet below street level. The northern part of this sunken area contained a pool of 140 by 120 feet that was drained and filled in 1957 due to leaks. Today it contains a grassy area used for outdoor gatherings. The rest of the area forms a terrace that is bordered by the wings of the building on three sides and partially covered by the connecting bridge. The entire terrace is paved in a mosaic pattern and surrounded by plant and flowerbeds. Weather permitting, the area is used for church and Bible school activities.</p><br>
<h3>Tower</h3><br>
<p>The church tower was planned as a separate unit detached from the rest of the church, rising from the terrace level in an unbroken line of 166 feet. The base, measured at 17 by 23 feet, is located at the northeastern corner of the terrace pool.</p><br>
<p>The tower is designed in a simple, geometric form with plain brick walls that open into a perforated design at the top. The perforated section surrounds the sounding chamber from which the organ chimes are broadcast. The simple design of the tower gives it dignity and strength, and its separate placement in relation to the church proper provides balance to the building.</p><br>
<h3>Church proper</h3><br>
<p>The church proper, located on the northeastern corner of the property, is set on a platform reached from the street by a set of nine steps. The entrance leads to the narthex, to the right of which is a coatroom and to the left of which are stairs that lead to the gallery. Three doors connect the narthex to the church nave, one to the central aisle, the second to the side aisle, and the last to a low passage that connects the church with the Bible school.</p><br>
<p>The church proper was designed to create a serene, spatial atmosphere and thus has a unique asymmetrical design. Saarinen did not believe in forced symmetry because it created an artificial and sterile environment. Instead, he chose to focus on creating balance between various features and points of interest in the room. To this end, the cross at the end of the chancel is off center, but the communion table, integral to the service, is placed at the central axis of the church. Symmetry is used to accentuate the spirit of the service, instead of creating an artificial environment. Similarly, the middle aisle of the nave and the pulpit are slightly off center as well.</p><br>
<p>Unlike many traditional churches, there are no stained glass windows. Instead, Saarinen designed windows with the same pattern used in the perforated part of the tower, adding to the unity and natural symmetry of the building. The flow of light into the room was designed to highlight the serenity of the room. Daylight from the floor-to-ceiling windows light up the nave and chancel during morning services, adding to the spiritual nature of the service.</p><br>
<p>The church is 144 feet in length, 46 feet in width, and seats 580 people. With an additional rear gallery that holds 180 and a choir of 40, its total capacity is 800 individuals.</p><br>
<h3>Chapel</h3><br>
<p>The chapel, like the church, also features Saarinen&#39;s asymmetrical design. Instead of a central aisle, there is a wide aisle on the west side and a narrow aisle on the east. Similar floor to ceiling windows provide light here too.</p><br>
<h3>Baptistry</h3><br>
<p>The Baptistry is placed at the rear of the chancel, screened from the audience with swinging doors. It is lit with daylight from the windows in the church proper, and the light flows above those being baptized. The use of natural light to light the ceremony symbolizes the belief in the natural arrangements of death, burial, and resurrection. Facilities like dressing rooms, showers, and toilets for men and women are located on the second floor above.</p><br>
<h3>Organ</h3><br>
<p>The church organ was the latest model by the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company at the time and consists of 4 manuals and pedals, 72 speaking stops, 4695 pipes, 61 harp bars, 25 chimes, and 73 other couplers and accessories. The size of pipes vary from 32 feet to ¾ of an inch long. It is housed in a chamber on the left of the chancel.</p><br>
<p>The organ was adapted to suit the needs of the church. It is based on an 18th-century organ with great tonal richness and clarity, but modern mechanical additions were made to make it easier to play. This resulted in an organ based on a classical foundation with enough flexibility to perform music of all periods.</p><br>
<h3>Tapestry</h3><br>
<p>The 35 by 11 ½ foot tapestry decorating the church was designed by Saarinen and woven by trained Scandinavian weavers under the direction of his wife, Loja Saarinen. Woven with wool and flax, it depicts the Sermon on the Mount in an image of animals and listeners. It was the largest tapestry in the country at the time.</p><br>
<h3>Auditorium and reception room</h3><br>
<p>The auditorium space is used for dinners, plays, and other entertainment involving a large number of people. The 500 seats can be stored under the stage to create an open space. Floor length windows open out into the terrace and pool for outdoor entertainment as well. The entire room is 92 feet long, 46 feet wide, and a little more than 12 feet high. The stage is 31 feet deep.</p><br>
<p>Connected to the auditorium is a reception room, used for a variety of activities and providing access to coat and toilet facilities. The room is 24 by 64 feet in size.</p><br>
<h3>Kitchen and offices</h3><br>
<p>The kitchen and pantry, an area of 900 square feet, is located on the East side of the East wing, arranged so that it does not interrupt church services and disturb the rest of the building. The office area adjacent to the East entrance hall consists of the Pastors study, the secretarys office, a library, and a reception room.</p><br>
<p>The Irwin Conference Center  was designed by Eero Saarinen and built in 1954 in Columbus, Indiana, United States. It is currently owned and operated by Cummins, whose world headquarters is located across Jackson Street in the Cummins Corporate Office Building. In recognition of its unique and beautiful design, the resource was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001.</p><br>
<p>The building consists of a one-story bank structure and adjacent three-story office annex. A portion of the office annex was built along with the banking hall in 1954. The remaining, much larger portion, designed by Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo and Associates, was built in 1973.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Irwin Miller became president of the Irwin Union Trust Company after his fathers death in 1947. Three years later, he commissioned Eero Saarinen to design a new building for the bank. The building was designed to distance the Irwin Union Bank from traditional banking architecture, which mostly echoed imposing, neoclassical style buildings of brick or stone. Miller wanted the building to symbolize the banks progressive mission, which included offering some of the first credit cards and earliest drive-through banking. Instead of having tellers behind iron bars and removed from their customers, Saarinen worked to develop a building that would welcome customers rather than intimidate them.</p><br>
<p>The structure has changed ownership twice since 2008 and is now operated by the corporate hospitality division of Cummins.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The glass building may look simple, but like all Saarinen&#39;s projects, every aspect of the space was designed after extensive research of its use. The ceiling was designed at 11 ft in height so the space would not feel oppressive. A freestanding structure for files occupies the center in the building, so that the office floor would be open and uncluttered. The colorful counters where tellers worked were equipped with removable plastic hoods when traffic demanded additional counters. A small elevator and spiral staircase gave tellers secure access to the cash vault below and two steel and glass vestibules connect the glass pavilion to the three-story office annex, where customers could transact business privately.</p><br>
<p>The grid of large domes on the roof of the bank was a source of amusement for the townspeople, who jokingly called the bank a "brassiere factory". Nevertheless, they loved the building and customers increased fourfold.</p><br>
<h2>Landscape</h2><br>
<p>The bank building only occupied one-third of the site, the rear portion housed a drive-through window and large parking lot surrounded and intersected with trees. Landscape architect Dan Kiley chose specific types of trees and foliage in order to integrate the bank with its neighboring buildings and help shade the inside of the bank. He used littleleaf linden trees as the basis of the space, with euonymus as ground cover and seasonal spring bulbs, begonias, geraniums, and chrysanthemums as accents.</p><br>
<p>The goal was to create a green space in the middle of downtown Columbus and provide the city with some breathing room. Since the bank building is lower than the surrounding buildings, its landscape feels more park-like. As the number of automobiles on the streets grew in the early 1950s, spaces like this helped relieve the congestion of busy downtown areas.</p><br>
<h2>Bank closure</h2><br>
<p>On September 18, 2009, the Indiana Department of Financial Institutions closed the Irwin Union Bank and Trust Company and named the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as receiver. First Financial Bank of Hamilton, Ohio, purchased all deposits and virtually all assets of Irwin Union Bank and participated in a loss-share transaction jointly with the FDIC. The FDIC estimated that the cost to the Deposit Insurance Fund (DIF) for both institutions was $850 million.</p><br>
<h2>Cummins ownership</h2><br>
<p>In 2010, Cummins purchased the building from First Financial and announced its intention to remodel the bank and associated buildings at a cost of $5.25 million. First Financial would continue to occupy the building until its new facility is completed in 2012. Cummins then expects to complete renovations by summer 2014. The Saarinen-designed structure will be used for a corporate conference center and meeting space.</p><br>
<p>The First Baptist Church is one of six National Historic Landmarks in Columbus, Indiana, United States. It was designed by distinguished architect Harry Weese; construction was completed in 1965. Since completion, few alterations have been made and the building has retained its integrity. It was one of the first church designs to integrate Modern movement architecture and a non-traditional church plan.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The First Baptist Church of Columbus is located at 3300 Fairlawn Drive in Columbus, Indiana. It occupies one-third of an open area in a suburban neighborhood of single-family homes developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Richards Elementary School (designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes and built in 1965) and Par 3 Golf Course and Clubhouse (designed by Bruce Adams and built in 1972) comprise the other two-thirds of the "town square". These structures are easily visible as they create the skyline of this residential subdivision.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The First Baptist Church was one of Columbus&#39;s early congregations. It occupied a previous site (which has not been preserved) before moving to Fairlawn Drive in 1965. The facility occupies a 7.1 acre site at the base of a gently sloping hill which the group chose because the site allowed room for growth and parking. The parcel originally contained a row of walnut trees along its southern boundary, however other trees have been planted on the grounds.</p><br>
<p>The red brick building has five distinct sections (narthex, sanctuary, office wing, fellowship hall, and chapel) built around a central courtyard. The windows are tall and narrow.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary is the principal interior space of the building. It is a windowless room, made up of simple elements that combine to create a space that is at the same time dramatic and serene. Each element is a simple object—a brick wall, a beam, an opening, a skylight—but all exaggerated slightly in size, proportion, or height.</p><br>
<p>Pewabic Pottery is a ceramic studio and school in Detroit, Michigan. Founded in 1903, the studio is known for its iridescent glazes, some of which grace notable buildings such as the Shedd Aquarium and Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception. The pottery continues in operation today, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>Origin and history</h2><br>
<p>The pottery was founded in 1903 by the artist and teacher Mary Chase Perry Stratton and her business partner Horace James Caulkins. Caulkins was considered a high-heat and kiln specialist and developed the "Revelation kiln". Mary Chase Perry Stratton was "the artistic and marketing force." The collaboration of the two and their blend of art and technology gave the pottery its distinctive qualities as Detroit&#39;s contribution to the International Arts and Crafts movement and exemplified the American Craftsman Style.</p><br>
<p>The word Pewabic is derived from the Ojibwa (or Chippewa) word "wabic", which means metal, or "bewabic", which means iron or steel. Strattons father had worked as a doctor for the Pewabic copper mine in Michigans Upper Peninsula when she was a girl. The company is well known for the unusual iridescent glaze covering the pottery and tiles created in a manner outlined by the International Arts and Crafts movement.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, Pewabic Pottery was designated as a National Historic Landmark (see also List of National Historic Landmarks in Michigan). As Michigan&#39;s only historic pottery, the center continues to operate in a 1907 Tudor Revival building as a non-profit educational institution. They offer classes in ceramics, hold exhibitions, sell pottery made in house, showcase and sell artists from across the United States, and offer design and fabrication services for public and private buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Museum and galleries</h2><br>
<p>The museums exhibits focus on the companys role in the history of Detroit, the Arts and Crafts movement in America and the development of ceramic art in the country. The galleries also showcase new works by modern ceramic artists.</p><br>
<h2>Famous works</h2><br>
<p>Pewabic Pottery produces many kinds of hand made decorative objects. They are part of the collections of the Detroit Institute of Arts, the University of Michigan Museum of Art, and the Freer Gallery of Art.</p><br>
<p>Under Mary Strattons artistic leadership, Pewabic Pottery employees created lamps, vessels, and architectural tiles. Architectural pieces have been a staple in Pewabics history. They were known for their iridescent glazes. Architectural tiles were used in churches, concert halls, fountains, libraries, museums, schools and public buildings. The studio&#39;s work graces numerous edifices throughout Michigan and the rest of the United States. Noteworthy examples include Herzstein Hall at Rice University in Houston, Texas, and the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago, Illinois. Detailed maps of public installations in the Detroit Metropolitan Area and the USA are available. See Architectural tile infra.</p><br>
<p>Particularly notable was the company&#39;s work at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C., consisting of arches outlined with iridescent Pewabic tile, huge ceramic medallions set in the ceiling, and fourteen Stations of the Cross for the crypt.</p><br>
<p>Pewabics design team continues to create ornate tile conceptions for public and private buildings. Contemporary installations include Comerica Park, home of the Detroit Tigers, Detroit Medical Center Childrens Hospital, five Detroit People Mover stations, Third Man Records (Detroit), stations for the Q-Line, and the Herald Square in New York City.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural tile</h2><br>
<p>Pewabic tile was (and continues to be) in great demand in Detroit and the southeastern Michigan area for the use in buildings and it can be found in many of the area&#39;s finest structures. These include:</p><br>
<p>Cathedral Church of St. Paul, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Charles Lang Freer House, 71 East Ferry Avenue (Current name: Palmer, Merrill, Institute of Human Development & Family Life) Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Christ Church, Cranbrook, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Compuware World Headquarters, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Cowles House (a/k/a Alice B. Cowles house, formerly known as Faculty Row House Number 7 and presently the Michigan State University President&#39;s home), East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook Kingswood School, many facilities</p><br>
<p>Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan (loggia)</p><br>
<p>Detroit People Mover many stations, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Detroit Public Library Children&#39;s Room, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Detroit Receiving Hospital, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Detroit Zoological Park, Royal Oak, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Edward H. McNamara Terminal, Northwest Airlines, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, Romulus, Michigan</p><br>
<p>English Inn (formerly Medovue Manor), Eaton Rapids, Michigan built in 1927 for Oldsmobile President Irving Jacob Reuter</p><br>
<p>Father Solanus Casey Center, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Guardian Building, Detroit, Michigan.</p><br>
<p>Harper House, 1408 Cambridge Drive, Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Hill Auditorium, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Kedzie North, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Kirk in the Hills, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Fisher Mansion, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Mackenzie High School, 9275 Wyoming Avenue, Detroit, Michigan (Now at the landfill - demolished)</p><br>
<p>Maude Priest School, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Michigan Historical Museum, Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Michigan League, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Michigan Union, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Michigan State University Memorial Chapel, East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Michigan State University Union Women&#39;s Lounge (fireplace), East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Morton High School, Richmond, Indiana</p><br>
<p>National Theater, Monroe and Farmer, Detroit, Michigan (facade, 1911)</p><br>
<p>North Kedzie Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Oakland Family Services, Pontiac, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Sacred Heart Major Seminary, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Scott Fountain, Belle Isle Park, Detroit, Michigan, 1922</p><br>
<p>Shaw Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Southfield Public Library, Southfield, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Stephen M. Ross School of Business, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Wayne State University David Adamany Undergraduate Library, 5155 Gullen Mall Detroit, MI 48202-3962</p><br>
<p>Wayne State University Merrill Palmer Institute, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>Wayne State University, Old Main, Previously, Detroit Central High School, 4841 Cass Detroit, MI 48201</p><br>
<p>Women&#39;s City Club now Detroit Police Academy, Elizabeth and Park, Detroit, Michigan</p><br>
<p>The Cumberland Gap National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located at the border between Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, centered on the Cumberland Gap, a natural break in the Appalachian Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The park lies in parts of Bell and Harlan counties in Kentucky, Claiborne County in Tennessee, and Lee County in Virginia. The park contains the Kentucky-Virginia-Tennessee tripoint, accessible via trail.</p><br>
<p>The town of Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, is located inside of the park&#39;s territory.</p><br>
<p>The Cumberland Gap Visitor Center is located on USA Highway 25E just southeast of the city of Middlesboro, Kentucky, and just northwest of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel and the town of Cumberland Gap, Tennessee. The visitor center features a museum with interactive exhibits about the Gaps role as a transportation corridor, an auditorium that shows films about the areas cultural and natural history, a book store and the Cumberland Crafts gift shop with crafts from Appalachia.</p><br>
<h2>Physical geography</h2><br>
<p>The park covers 24,000 acre and is among the largest national parks in the eastern United States. As of 2010, 14,091 acres of this was designated as Recommended Wilderness. Elevation varies from a low of 1,100 ft to a high of 3,500 ft.</p><br>
<p>The park runs along the Cumberland Mountains, stretching about 20 mi with an average width of 1.6 mi. The park straddles a tri-state area encompassing land from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. It includes the area of the Wilderness Road running through the passage across the Cumberland Plateau and through the Cumberland Gap, an important geological feature that facilitated travel for American settlers and Native Americans. It includes 24 known cave features ranging in size from around 20 ft to more than 16 mi in length.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of large cliff systems in the park, the most prominent of which is the 500 ft cliffs of White Rocks, located in the eastern portion of the area. At the northeastern end, the park sits adjacent to the Sillalah Creek Wildlife Management Area and the Martin&#39;s Fork Wildlife Management Area and State Natural Area.</p><br>
<p>The climate of the area is mild, with hot and humid summers and mild winters, and an average annual temperature of 54 &deg;F.</p><br>
<h3>Hydrology</h3><br>
<p>The park contains over 62 mi of streams. With the exception of one, Little Yellow Creek, all of these originate from within the park, with those to the north of the main ridge flowing into the Cumberland River, and those to the south flowing into the Powell River. Overall water quality in the park is good to fair, with some areas falling below recommended pH levels, likely due to natural causes, and others exceeding recommended levels of microorganisms, possibly due to contamination from campgrounds.</p><br>
<h3>Ecology</h3><br>
<p>The area of the park is 97% forested and contains 970 species of vascular plants, 90 of which are classified as sensitive or rare species. These include 108 non-native species of plants, and 31 considered to be highly aggressive invasive plants.</p><br>
<p>The park is home to at least 145 species of birds, and 40 species of mammals, including the near-threatened bat, Myotis sodalis (Indiana bat). The streams in the park house around 27 species of fish, including Chrosomus cumberlandensis (blackside dace), federally listed as an endangered species. Additionally, surveys have identified at least 36 species of reptiles and amphibians.</p><br>
<p>Ecosystems in the park are threatened by a number of insect infestations from non-native pest species, including Dendroctonus frontalis (southern pine beetle), and Adelges tsugae (hemlock woolly adelgid). The species Agrilus planipennis (emerald ash borer) and Lymantria dispar dispar (gypsy moth) also represent imminent threats from surrounding areas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Business leaders from Middlesboro, Kentucky, meeting in Cincinnati for the Appalachian Logging Conference, proposed a Lincoln National Park, centered around Fern Lake as early as 1922. However, two bills introduced into the Kentucky State Legislature the following year by State Congressman John Robison both failed. Later attempts in 1929 sought to create memorials for Civil War battles fought in the area, and also failed. In 1938, the National Park Service agreed to support a park if the lands were donated to form one, and the Cumberland Gap National Historical Park Association was created, sparking more unsuccessful attempts in Kentucky, and then passage of a bill in Virginia in 1939 that paved the way for federal authorization.</p><br>
<p>The park was established on June 11, 1940, by Franklin Roosevelt in order to "commemorate the story of the first doorway of the west". The surrounding states purchased and deeded the land of the park to the federal government in 1955, and the official opening took place in 1959.</p><br>
<p>In 1992, the park purchased the area surrounding Gap Cave, which had previously been privately owned. By 1996, the park had undergone some $280 million in improvements, including construction of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel.</p><br>
<p>Toward the southern end of the park lies Fern Lake, created by an earthen dam in 1890, which provides water to the nearby town of Middlesboro, Kentucky. The area surrounding the lake was purchased by the park in four phases following the passage of the Fern Lake Conservation and Recreation Act, increasing the overall size of the park by 20%:</p><br>
<p>Phases I and II, 1,850 acres of land purchased in 2008 from Ataya Hardwoods by The Trust for Public Land and transferred to the park</p><br>
<p>Phase III, 1,268 acres of land purchased in 2009 from Molpus Woodlands Group</p><br>
<p>Phase IV, 905 acres of land purchased in 2009 from Molpus Woodlands Group</p><br>
<p>As of 2010 there were plans to acquire an additional 600 acres of land surrounding the lake. As of 2018, the park had an estimated $15 million in deferred maintenance.</p><br>
<h2>Accommodations</h2><br>
<p>The park includes a visitor center, renovated in 2004, which features a museum and auditorium, providing exhibits on the areas cultural and natural history, as well as book and gift shops.</p><br>
<p>Guided tours of the Hensley Settlement and Gap Cave are provided from the tourist center.</p><br>
<p>There are 85 mi of hiking trails, ranging from shorter routes such as the 2.6 mi Sugar Run Trail, to the 21 mi Ridge Trail, which spans the park and reaches an elevation of 3,513 ft. The nearby Wilderness Road Campground includes 160 campsites. No hunting is permitted within the park.</p><br>
<p>Tri-State Peak is located in the park, and is accessible by trail. A marker designating the tripoint of the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, is located at the peak of the mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>The park saw 737,547 visitors in 2017, according to statistics by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>In 2017, the park received the Keeper of the Light Award from the Southeast Region of the National Park Service, which recognizes excellence in education. In 2016, the United States Mint released a commemorative quarter as part of the America the Beautiful series honoring the park.</p><br>
<p>Founders Rock is a historical site located on the corner of Hearst Avenue and Gayley Road, in Berkeley, California, USA. The spot, according to college lore, where the 12 trustees of the College of California, the nascent University of California, Berkeley, stood on April 16, 1860, to dedicate the property they had just purchased. This is, supposedly, the same spot where Frederick H. Billings stood in 1866 when he remembered Bishop Berkeleys verse — "Westward the course of empire takes its way" — and thus inspired the name of the new city.</p><br>
<p>A plaque was put on this spot on Charter Day in 1896, by the graduating class. It is listed as one of the National Register of Historic Places since March 25, 1982; listed as a California Historical Landmark since March 25, 1982; and a Berkeley Landmark since February 25, 1991.</p><br>
<p>The Michigan Military Academy, also known as M.M.A., was an all-boys military prep school in Orchard Lake Village, Oakland County, Michigan. It was founded in 1877 by J. Sumner Rogers and closed in 1908 due to bankruptcy. Some journalists have referred to the school as the Second West Point. The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 as the Orchard Lake Schools Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Early history and establishment</h2><br>
<p>In 1858, Joseph Tarr Copeland, a USA Army general who would later serve in the American Civil War, purchased several acres of land and began to build his retirement home on the shores of Orchard Lake. Most of the 90 acres (364,000 m) he owned were used for agricultural purposes, and he was slowly selling tracts of land for development. The area was popular with tourists, so in 1871 Copeland converted his residence, a large, castle-like home on the shores of Orchard Lake, into the Orchard Lake Hotel. Business was good for a few years but development in the area forced many vacationers to seek seclusion farther north and the Panic of 1873 forced Copeland to find profit elsewhere. In 1877 Copeland sought to sell his home and the land around it. J. Sumner Rogers, who was a professor of Military Science and Tactics at Detroit High School, had wanted to establish a creditable military prep school in the Detroit area for some time. Seeing the opportunity at hand, Rogers bought the land with the help of some wealthy Detroiters, and later that year he established the Michigan Military Academy. He modeled the academy after West Point and its success was immediate.</p><br>
<h2>Peak years</h2><br>
<p>Over the course of its 30-year history, Michigan Military Academy had 2,558 enrollments and 458 graduates. The graduating class of 1893 played a prominent role in the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and many of the classes won National Drill Competitions.</p><br>
<p>On June 19, 1879, William Tecumseh Sherman, General in Chief of the USA Army, delivered a variant of his famous "War Is Hell" speech to the graduating class. A total of 10,000 people arrived to listen to Shermans speech, and the press reported that it was the largest number of people ever to gather within the townships boundaries (at that time the village of Orchard Lake was part of West Bloomfield Township). Some claim that he said: "There is many a boy here today who looks upon war as all glory, but, boys, it is all hell&quot however, the published text of Sherman&#39;s address does not contain that line.</p><br>
<p>Future City of Detroit Mayor, Cadet John C. Lodge, recorded his memories of the Sherman speech, "At one of our graduation exercises the speaker was General William T. Sherman. He was not eloquent, and he didn&#39;t have a very pleasant voice; it was somewhat shrill."</p><br>
<h2>Student life</h2><br>
<p>With a tuition of $500 per year in the 1800s (about $16,000 in 2022), M.M.A. attracted mostly sons of wealthy upper class businessmen. There were three levels of training at the school: Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry. The cadets wore gray and white uniforms, modeled after those that were worn at West Point. Students with musical abilities were encouraged to join the marching band. All cadets were taught to use a.45 caliber Springfield rifle, and the academy had an 8-inch siege mortar and Gatling guns at its disposal for military drills. There were a few accidents; in 1884, a cadet drowned during a training exercise in the lake. In 1889, another cadet drowned during a midnight swim.</p><br>
<p>The cadets had a busy schedule, even on weekends. Rogers and his staff allowed for holiday parties and arranged dances with nearby all-girls schools. Discipline was harsh and there were many athletic and extracurricular activities and the students were encouraged to participate. There were several hundred dropouts throughout the academy&#39;s history.</p><br>
<h2>Campus</h2><br>
<p>There were a total of 19 buildings on the campus. The oldest building on the campus is Copelands "castle", built in 1858, and it is still in use. The Academic Building (pictured above) was completed in 1890 and it was the center of academic life on campus. Additional buildings, include a Riding Hall (1881), Cadets Barracks (1884), Engine House (1889), Gymnasium (1896). There were also several barns, and these and many other buildings were demolished, replaced, or destroyed by fire throughout the academys short history.</p><br>
<p>As Rogers extended the campus, he dug a network of tunnels to connect most of the buildings. In the event of an attack, the tunnels would provide easy access across campus. The tunnels also led to a large bomb shelter under the Engine House. The tunnels are now used for plumbing, electricity, ethernet, and other utilities.</p><br>
<h2>Bankruptcy and post-peak years</h2><br>
<p>In 1900, Rogers undertook a massive building project, with a total of nine buildings planned at a cost of $350,000 (about $13 million in 2022). In December of that year, students and teachers protested against mistreatment and unsatisfactory meals. Rogers, who was terminally ill at the time, quickly fired several teachers whom he blamed for instigating the complaints. Rogers died in September 1901 and management of the school was left to Rogers&#39; widowed wife and his friend Gen. Charles King. Enrollment declined sharply, and the academy sank into debt and then bankruptcy before being closed in 1908.</p><br>
<h2>Notable faculty and administrators</h2><br>
<p>George Oscar Cress, professor of Military Science and Tactics from 1904 to 1908</p><br>
<p>Adelbert Cronkhite, professor of Military Science and Tactics, 1891 to 1892</p><br>
<p>Henry W. Lord, USA Congressman, MMA trustee from 1878 to 1880</p><br>
<p>J. Sumner Rogers, founder and superintendent</p><br>
<p>Harry Lovejoy Rogers, son of J. Sumner Rogers, school quartermaster from 1887 to 1898, USA Army major general He was the school&#39;s quartermaster with the rank of major from 1887 to 1897, and commandant of cadets from 1897 to 1898.</p><br>
<p>Frederick S. Strong, US Army major general who served as a professor of military science from 1884 to 1888 and 1892 to 1895, and superintendent from 1902 to 1904</p><br>
<p>Edwin B. Winans, professor of Military Science and Tactics from 1897 to 1898</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Harry Archer, musician and composer</p><br>
<p>Daniel Read Anthony Jr., USA Congressman from Kansas, 1907 to 1929</p><br>
<p>Sewell Avery, chairman of the board of Montgomery Ward</p><br>
<p>John A. Bloomingston, college athlete and attorney</p><br>
<p>Edgar Rice Burroughs, author of the Tarzan novels. He later spent time on the school&#39;s faculty.</p><br>
<p>Kurtis Froedtert, Physician, businessman, and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>George Schuyler Hodges, artist, inventor, and automobile executive</p><br>
<p>Frank P. Lahm, USA military aviation pioneer, brigadier general in the United States Army Air Corps</p><br>
<p>John C. Lodge, mayor of Detroit from 1923–1924 and 1927–1928</p><br>
<p>Fenton R. McCreery, USA diplomat</p><br>
<p>Truman Handy Newberry, United States Senator from Michigan, 1919–1922</p><br>
<p>Sylvester H. Scovel, war correspondent</p><br>
<p>Walter Cowen Short, MMA faculty 1890–1891, US Army brigadier general</p><br>
<p>Frederic L. Smith, automobile executive</p><br>
<p>George Veazey Strong, commander of the Military Intelligence Corps during World War II</p><br>
<p>Clayton Teetzel, college athlete and coach</p><br>
<p>Harry Van Surdam, athlete, musician, superintendent of El Paso Military Institute</p><br>
<h2>The Seminary and other schools</h2><br>
<p>Two years after the Academy closed, in 1910, Fr. Joseph Dabrowski, the director of the Polish Seminary of Detroit, purchased the campus and moved his school there. The seminary has stayed there to this day. It is now called SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary. The campus is also home to St. Mary&#39;s Preparatory, and Madonna University of Livonia, Michigan holds some classes on the campus.</p><br>
<p>The Fan is a district of Richmond, Virginia, so named because of the "fan" shape of the array of streets that extend west from Belvidere Street, on the eastern edge of Monroe Park, westward to Arthur Ashe Boulevard. However, the streets rapidly resemble a grid after they go through what is now Virginia Commonwealth University. The Fan is one of the easterly points of the citys West End section, and is bordered to the north by Broad Street and to the south by VA 195, although the Fan District Association considers the southern border to be the properties abutting the south side of Main Street. The western side is sometimes called the Upper Fan and the eastern side the Lower Fan, though confusingly the Uptown district is located near VCU in the Lower Fan. Many cafes and locally owned restaurants are located here, as well as historic Monument Avenue, a boulevard formerly featuring statuary of the Civil Wars Confederate president and generals. The only current statue is a more modern one of tennis icon Arthur Ashe. Development of the Fan district was strongly influenced by the City Beautiful movement of the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The Fan District is primarily a residential neighborhood consisting of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century homes. It is also home to VCU&#39;s Monroe Park Campus, several parks, and tree-lined avenues. The District also has numerous houses of worship, and locally owned businesses and commercial establishments. The Fan borders and blends with the Boulevard, the Museum District, and the Carytown district, which features the ornate Byrd Theatre.</p><br>
<p>Main east-west thoroughfares include Broad Street, Grace Street, Monument Avenue, Patterson Avenue, Grove Avenue, Floyd Avenue, Main Street, Parkwood Ave, and Cary Street.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Fan is known for having one of the longest intact stretches of Victorian architecture in the United States, however much of the housing stock was actually built after the end of the Victorian era and is arguably more Edwardian and Revival in style. While housing in the Eastern parts of the neighborhood are quintessential Victorian styles, such as Italianate and Queen Anne, housing stock further west was constructed in the first decades of the twentieth century and exhibits the pared back victorianism of Edwardian architecture. Homes still contain gables and turrets, but detail is normally executed in a simplified classical form. Colonial Revival and American Craftsman architecture are common as well, with Revival architectural types arguably the most common (as was common to the time period) Revivalism (architecture).</p><br>
<p>Italianate</p><br>
<p>Richardsonian Romanesque</p><br>
<p>Queen Anne</p><br>
<p>Colonial Revival</p><br>
<p>Other architectural styles include:</p><br>
<p>Tudor Revival</p><br>
<p>Second Empire</p><br>
<p>Beaux-Arts</p><br>
<p>Art Deco</p><br>
<p>Spanish</p><br>
<p>Gothic Revival</p><br>
<p>Bungalow</p><br>
<p>American Arts and Crafts Movement</p><br>
<p>James River Georgian</p><br>
<p>Southern Colonial</p><br>
<p>Jacobethan (Jacobean Revival)</p><br>
<p>Federal</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1817, the Fan was plotted as the village of Sydney on land formerly owned by William Byrd II. Primary development of the Fan occurred after the Civil War through about 1920. Streetcar lines leading from downtown influenced development; the nation&#39;s first electric streetcar system was inaugurated in Richmond in 1888.</p><br>
<p>As development increased from downtown at the turn of the 20th century, Franklin street became a fashionable "West End" address. A desire for a West End address drove rapid real estate development of the area, changing the area from rural tobacco fields in 1880 to being almost fully developed land by the 1920s. As development accelerated, the University of Richmond (then located on Lombardy Street) was moved west to a more rural location (its present Westhampton location). During the Great Depression, many of the single-family homes in the area were converted to apartments.</p><br>
<p>The term "the Fan" was coined in the mid 20th century by a Richmond Times Dispatch editorial, as the appellation "West End" no longer applied. In 1985, the Fan was added to the National Register of Historic Places, and various buildings around the Fan are adorned with plaques noting this and when the building was built.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>The Crow Creek massacre occurred around the mid-14th century AD and involved Native American groups at a site along the upper Missouri River in the South Dakota area; it is now within the Crow Creek Indian Reservation. Crow Creek Site, the site of the massacre near Chamberlain, is an archaeological site and a USA National Historic Landmark, located at coordinates 43°58′48″N 99°19′54″W. An excavation of part of the site was done in the 1950s, at the time of dam construction on the river. Additional excavations were conducted in 1978 and later.</p><br>
<p>Two groups occupied the site in prehistoric times. The Siouan-speaking Middle Missouri people (Initial Middle Missouri variant), ancestral to the present-day Mandan people, first occupied the site sometime after about 900 AD. They built numerous earth lodges on the lower portion of the site. Caddoan-speaking Central Plains people (Initial Coalescent variant) moved into the area from southern areas (present-day Nebraska) sometime around 1150 AD. (The present-day Arikara are a Caddoan people.) Whether they displaced the earlier group or moved on to an abandoned site is unknown. The Central Plains (Initial Coalescent) people built at least 55 lodges, mostly on the upper part of the site. There is no direct evidence that there was conflict between the two groups, and scholars have found evidence that both cultures changed gradually in relation to the other.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence that the Central Plains/Initial Coalescent villagers built well-planned defensive works for their village. They were replacing an earlier dry moat fortification with a new fortification ditch around the expanded village when an attack occurred that resulted in the massacre. The attacking group killed all the villagers.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists from the University of South Dakota, directed by project director Larry J. Zimmerman, field director Thomas Emerson, and osteologist P. Wille, found the remains of at least 486 people killed during the attack. Most of these remains showed signs of ritual mutilation, particularly scalping. Other examples were tongues being removed, teeth broken, beheading, hands and feet being cut off, and other forms of dismemberment. In addition to the severity of the attack, most of the people showed signs of malnutrition and many had evidence of earlier wounds, likely from other attacks. This evidence has suggested to scholars that lives of people of the Initial Coalescent culture were under more stress than was thought; they have theorized that the people were attacked by another group or several groups of the Initial Coalescent culture in the area in competition for arable land and resources.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Crow Creek site, designated 39BF11 under the Smithsonian site numbering system, is located along the Missouri River in central South Dakota. The site is located on lands now under the control of the US Army Corps of Engineers due to its flood control and other projects on the river. It is surrounded by the territory of the Crow Creek Indian Reservation. The descendants of the people of the Middle Missouri and Central Plains/Initial Coalescent cultures now live in North Dakota as the Mandan and Arikara nations, respectively, of the Three Affiliated Tribes (together with the Hidatsa). Some occupy Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, but many also live off the reservation in cities.</p><br>
<p>Crow Creek is now a well-preserved archaeological site. It was listed as National Historic Landmark (number 66000710) when the Register was started in 1964.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, South Dakota State Archaeologist, Robert Alex, and other members of his office attended a meeting hosted by the South Dakota Archaeological Society. They toured the Crow Creek site, which had been known and had some professional excavation in the 1950s as part of surveys and salvage excavations preceding construction of Big Bend Dam on the Missouri within the reservation boundaries. They discovered human bones eroding from the end of the fortification ditch.</p><br>
<p>After they received permission to excavate the site from the reservation tribal council, following consultation about how to proceed and agreement to rebury remains on site, archeology teams recovered the skeletal remains of at least 486 Crow Creek villagers. These estimates were based on the number of right temporal bones present at the scene. The characteristics of the remains at the site show they were killed in an overwhelming attack, which has been called the Crow Creek Massacre. Discovery of this event has raised many questions in the archaeological community, particularly who attacked the village and why.</p><br>
<h2>Skeletal remains</h2><br>
<p>The remains of the villagers of Crow Creek were discovered in a fortification ditch, where they were buried during the mid-14th century and covered with a small layer of clay from the river bottom. The bodies found in the fortification ditch were piled as deep as four feet in some areas. The bodies showed evidence of having lain out exposed to weather and scavengers for a period of time, becoming at least partly disarticulated before burial. A systematic or formal burial of individual bodies might have been impossible due to the state of the remains by the time of later burial.</p><br>
<p>It is not clear who buried the victims of the massacre, whether it was the attackers, escaped villagers, or members of an affiliated village. The layer of clay covering the bodies was coated by a "thin and scattered layer of bones," of which the purpose is unknown. Researchers thought that scavengers might have dug up these remains as a food source. The remains of these villagers reveal their untimely deaths and events of the last attack. They also reveal other hardships of their lives: evidence of nutritional deficiencies and previous warfare, which suggest adaptations to the changes were more difficult. These were documented by paleopathologist John B. Gregg.</p><br>
<h3>Nutritional deficiencies</h3><br>
<p>The villagers skeletal remains, as well as the fact that remains of canines (dogs) were buried with the villagers, provide evidence of extensive nutritional deficiencies of a chronic nature. According to Zimmermans 1985 book, Peoples of Prehistoric South Dakota, the bones reveal several ailments related to chronic malnutrition. As stated in Zimmerman&#39;s book, "one of the most common characteristics was a pitting in the top of the eye sockets called cribra orbitalis. Associated with this on several skulls was porotic hyperostosis, a pitting on the back of the skull". Both of these conditions are caused by a deficiency of iron in the diet. In addition to these ailments, Harris lines (an indicator of insufficient amounts of protein and other essential minerals, as well as truncated episodes of growth) were discovered while specialists examined radiographs of several individuals. The Crow Creek villagers were measured as being shorter than their Arikara descendants, with the females being significantly shorter; this could have been another effect of nutritional deficiencies and illness.</p><br>
<p>In a journal article entitled "The Crow Creek Massacre: Initial Coalescent Warfare and Speculations about the Genesis of Extended Coalescent", Zimmerman and Bradley propose that the severe conditions faced by the Crow Creek villagers were not short term. Based on the evidence of "active and organizing subperiostial hematomas along with the other bony alterations" found while examining remains, they concluded that the villagers had long suffered malnutrition, in repeated episodes thought due to the unstable climate and drought, which reduced the crop yields and food supplies.</p><br>
<p>The presence of animal bones within the fortification ditch suggests that villagers ate their dogs because of hunger. Willey and Emersons article entitled "The Osteology and Archaeology of the Crow Creek Massacre" describes the presence of animal bones, specifically canine, within the fortification ditch. They said that it is likely the canines were eaten by the villagers, and their remains were accidentally included in the burial when other parties collected the villagers remains. It appears that even domesticated animals such as dogs were used as food sources during this time of famine.</p><br>
<h3>Evidence of previous warfare</h3><br>
<p>The skeletal remains of the villagers also showed evidence of earlier wounds. According to the 1982 dissertation entitled Osteology of the Crow Creek Massacre by P. Willey, evidence of previous warfare is present in the skeletal remains of victims found in the mass burial. Two individuals had survived previous scalping incidents, and were in the process of healing, which was indicated by the bony re-growth of their skulls; a third individual had survived a head injury as indicated by "a healed depressed fracture in the frontal". Others showed evidence of being wounded by arrows, the points of which remained in the legs and were overgrown by bone.</p><br>
<h3>The massacre</h3><br>
<p>Many of the bodies are missing limbs; the attackers may have taken them as trophies, scavenger animals or birds may have carried them away, or some limbs may have been left unburied in the Crow Creek village. Authors Willey and Emerson state that "they had been killed, mutilated, and scavenged before being buried". "Tongue removal, decapitation, and dismemberment of the Crow Creek victims may have been based on standard aboriginal butchering practices developed on large game animals". These are among the mutilations discovered at the Crow Creek site. In addition, scalping was performed, bodies were burned, and there is evidence of limbs being removed by various means. As stated in Willey&#39;s dissertation, many of the mutilations suffered by the victims of the Crow Creek massacre could have been traumatic enough to result in death.</p><br>
<p>A conservative estimate of villagers who suffered scalping is 90%, but it could have been as high as 100%. This is based on skeletal remains that exhibit cuts on their skulls indicative of scalping. Men, women, and children were scalped; the only difference was that younger children were cut higher on the skull than other groups.</p><br>
<h2>Hypotheses</h2><br>
<p>The events leading to this massacre are unknown, but there are many hypotheses. The most plausible is that this was internecine warfare, and that "overpopulation, land-use patterns, and an unstable climate caused the people to compete for available farmland" and other resources. The malnutrition suffered by the Crow Creek villagers was most likely common for people in that region during this time period. Because of this, there is a strong chance that another Initial Coalescent group or several groups in the region attacked the Crow Creek village for its arable land and resources.</p><br>
<h2>Reburial and further study</h2><br>
<p>Before the excavations could proceed, the Corps of Engineers and the University of South Dakota Archaeology Laboratory team consulted with the Crow Creek Sioux Reservation Tribal Council, as well as representatives of the Mandan and Arikara peoples, who now are based mostly on Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota. The researchers agreed to the tribal council request that the remains stay within South Dakota for the entire period of study and that, after study, the remains should be reburied on the Crow Creek site, the place where the families had lived and died.</p><br>
<p>Particularly because of the scale of the reburial, the case attracted international attention. While Native American tribes had been requesting return of remains and artifacts held by museums and historic societies, this would be the largest reburial of remains. Some archeologists and human osteologists criticized the agreement at the time, "contending that new techniques would have allowed substantially more information to be gleaned from the remains if they had been curated for eventual restudy."</p><br>
<p>At the request of the Arikara, the remains were placed in five burial vaults. In order to avoid disturbing the site, the vaults were buried in areas where earlier archeological excavations had taken place in the 1950s. The study took three years, and the reburial took place in late summer 1981. Several Christian ceremonies, a traditional Lakota ceremony, and a private Arikara ceremony were offered at the time.</p><br>
<p>The reburial was controversial and one of the largest ever to have occurred in the United States. Some researchers thought the remains should have been preserved for more study. However, so much skeletal evidence was gathered that many studies were still made through the mid-1990s, based on measurements, photographs, and radiographs of the remains taken during those three years. New (21st century) analyses of the dates on the massacre and the occupational history of the site are also being made, which may change some interpretations.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Since the reburial, the US Congress and South Dakota legislature have passed laws governing consultation with tribes, and return of remains and artifacts of cultural importance. The most far-reaching federal legislation was the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) (Public Law 101–601).</p><br>
<p>The Second Leiter Building, also known as the Leiter II Building, the Sears Building, One Congress Center, and Robert Morris Center, is located at the northeast corner of South State Street and East Ida B. Wells Drive in Chicago, Illinois. The building is not to be confused with the present Willis Tower, formerly the Sears Tower, constructed and owned by the famous nationwide mail-order firm Sears, Roebuck & Company. This landmark of the Chicago school of architecture gained fame for being one of the earliest commercial buildings constructed with a metal skeleton frame remaining in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1891 by Levi Z. Leiter, (1834–1904), the Second Leiter Building was designed by architect William Le Baron Jenney, who implemented the skeletal frame made of steel to make the design fireproof. The building was leased by Levi Leiter to the department store of Siegel, Cooper and Company who occupied it for approximately seven years. After Siegel Cooper closed, the building hosted various tenants until it became the downtown flagship store of Sears, Roebuck and Company in 1931. Sears occupied the space the until 1986 when it decided to close the store and the space was leased to other tenants.</p><br>
<p>The structure is eight floors and occupies the entire block of State Street between Ida B. Wells Drive and Van Buren Street. The State Street facade consists of nine bays separated by wide pilasters. The pilasters are capped by simple capitals and an unadorned cornice crowns the entire structure. The Ida B. Wells and Van Buren facades are three bays wide with measurements of 400 ft by 143 ft. Within each bay are four windows on each floor aligned vertically. The building is faced with a pink granite. Each floor contains 50,000 ft&sup2; with 16 ft ceilings and could be divided to house multiple tenants.</p><br>
<p>Its predecessor, the First Leiter Building, was designed by Jenney in 1879 and stood at Wells and Monroe until it was demolished in 1972. The Second Leiter Building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976, and a Chicago Landmark on January 14, 1997. From 1998 to 2020, the building was home to the Chicago campus of Robert Morris University, which vacated the space following its merger with Roosevelt University on March 9, 2020.</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club is one of the eleven current eating clubs of Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Founded in 1891, it is the fifth oldest of the clubs. It is located on 40 Prospect Avenue.</p><br>
<p>A private social club for undergraduates at Princeton University, the club was referred to as "flamboyant Colonial" in F. Scott Fitzgerald&#39;s debut novel, This Side of Paradise, and was defined as being one of the "top five" clubs along with Ivy, Cottage, Cap & Gown, and Tiger Inn. As the first eating club to both abandon the selective bicker process and become coeducational in 1969, Colonial Club has been heralded for its progressive legacy.</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club has been affiliated with over 7 Rhodes Scholars and several Valedictorians of Princeton University. Among the Princetonians who were involved in the World War II code-breaking at Bletchley Park,</p><br>
<p>some were allegedly from Colonial Club.</p><br>
<p>The club has served as the primary social scene for several notable alumni during their undergraduate years, including former Colonial Club Vice President Joseph Nye 58, co-founder of the international relations theory of neoliberalism, Pete Conrad 53, third man to walk on the Moon, Eric Schmidt 76, executive chairman of Alphabet Inc. and former CEO of Google, and Ted Cruz 92, USA Senator and candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 election.</p><br>
<h2>Clubhouse</h2><br>
<p>The club occupies a large mansion on the north side of Prospect Avenue in Princeton, NJ. The building is easily recognizable by its four large white columns fashioned in Colonial style. The current building has served as the clubhouse for Colonial since 1906. After originally occupying several locations farther away from campus, the current house was built during a time of strong rivalry between eating clubs, across the street from rival clubs Ivy and Cottage.</p><br>
<p>Colonials first clubhouse was located on 306 Nassau Street and served as the clubs residence for only one year. In 1892, the club moved to a house on 186 Nassau Street fashioned in the period&#39;s cottage architecture, featuring a front facade in the Queen Anne style. The club subsequently moved to Prospect Avenue in 1897, taking over the old Ivy Club house and changing the exterior by adding decorative columns and enlarging the lower floor. This third clubhouse lasted 9 years until the current clubhouse was built, funded by the issuance of bonds to graduate members and alumni. The new clubhouse was designed by associated architects Robert W. Gibson and Francis G. Stewart of New York City.</p><br>
<p>The current clubhouse features a wide variety of facilities, including a large foyer, cloak room, dining hall, kitchen, library, home theatre, game and billiards room, taproom, computer cluster, offices, various study rooms, and over a dozen bedrooms. The clubs undergraduate officers reside in the mansions third floor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<h4>Foundation</h4><br>
<h4>Great War Era</h4><br>
<p>After the sinking of the Lusitania, military training became the principal activity on campus. Only a few of the eating clubs remained open during this time. Colonial Club temporarily considered combining with Tiger Inn until the full membership of the various clubs returned to college after the war. Almost the entire 1917 section left college to enter various branches of service, and the entirety of the 1919 section was drafted, leading to the closing of the club. Several club members perished during World War I, including John G. Agar Jr. 14, Joseph M. Duff Jr. 12, Gordon C. Gregory 18, and Samuel F. Pogue 04. Colonial Clubs 1920 section managed to revive the club after the war, under the guidance of W. Irving Harris 20 and Harvey S. Firestone Jr. &#39;20, who later was chairman of the board of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company.</p><br>
<h4>Great Depression and WWII</h4><br>
<p>Surprisingly, Colonial Club enjoyed its biggest years in the thirties. The original 1933 section of thirty men was the largest that had ever entered the club up to that time, most of whom were students in the universitys Politics Department. According to the Colonial Club 100th Anniversary Book, the most striking feature of the club proved to be the members "bland unawareness of the significance of outside events in those days...few believed that the invasion of Manchuria or Hitler&#39;s rise to power carried a personal threat to us."</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club&#39;s tradition of having its formal club dinners in New York began in 1934 in an effort to bring together graduate and undergraduate members. The tradition has continued into the 21st century, with member and alumni dinners commonly held at the Princeton Club of New York.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s, Colonial Club continued to hold its place as one of the "Big Five" socially prominent eating clubs, along with Ivy, Cottage, Cap & Gown, and Tiger Inn. At the time, 80% of the members came from private preparatory schools, largely in New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, with the primary campus activity being Triangle Club and crew. Membership dropped during World War II, with over 18 members ranging from the 1914 section to the 1941 section perishing in the conflict.</p><br>
<h4>Cold War era</h4><br>
<p>After the world war, however, Colonials extravagant style and activities returned to the clubs normal affairs. Nearly $15,000 (around $150,000 in 2016) was once spent to hire Lester Lanins Orchestra, and parties reminiscent of those in the Roaring Twenties became a staple of club life. By the end of the 50s, many of the traditional social amenities of earlier eras began to fade; buffet style became fashionable in lieu of the clubs traditional white tablecloths, linen napkins, and waiters.</p><br>
<p>In the 60s, the club experienced several changes. The clubhouses third floor bedrooms, which long held the staff of waiters, were renovated into rooms for members. Variable section sizes and a drop in alumni financial support occasionally led to tough financial situations for the club. During this time, Colonial became the first of the clubs to go non-selective in 1969. This move, strongly encouraged by university officials, coincided with the clubs admittance of female members. Unlike some of the other eating clubs including Ivy Club, which did not allow women until a lawsuit in 1991, Colonial permitted women to join once Princeton University began to admit women as undergraduates in the same year. The inclusion of women in the club&#39;s daily life noticeably led to more small parties and events around the clubhouse.</p><br>
<p>The clubs financial difficulties gradually continued into the 70s and 80s, during which the clubs Graduate Board of Governors considered closing the club. Efforts by several of the undergraduate officers, including president Jaime Isbester and vice president April Gilbert, kept the club afloat via a fundraising campaign that raised more than $650,000 (over $2 million in 2016). Graduate members including Jack Dorrance 41, then chairman of the Campbell Soup Company, single-handedly donated over $100,000 in the clubs Centennial Campaign.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<h4>2000s</h4><br>
<p>Interest in the club reached a low point in 1999 when only 26 members of the class of 2001 signed into Colonial. Aggressive event planning by the classes of 2000 and 2001, along with generous alumni support and an enthusiastic and dedicated class of 2002, brought the club back from the brink. This was at least the third time the club had been rescued from near-oblivion; 1982 and 1988 also had seen very low sign-in numbers. In 2010, however, Colonial managed to recruit only 13 members in the first round of sign-ins; this was a massive drop from the 87 first round sign-ins from the previous year. The club was still able to attract a substantial number of new members during the second round of sign-ins that same year. In 2011, a huge turnaround occurred when over 130 sophomores signed into the club, which was the largest number of sophomores to join any of the eating clubs.</p><br>
<p>Throughout this period, the club has seen both the size and demographics of each section shift drastically. Nonetheless, the openness of the club, as demonstrated in 1969, remained a hallmark of the club&#39;s culture and shaped the club into the next decade.</p><br>
<h2>Club culture</h2><br>
<h3>Activities and traditions</h3><br>
<p>Continuing its established traditions originating from the Roaring Twenties, Colonial frequently hosts events for its members and guests including game nights, intramural sports, semiformals, and winter and spring house parties. The club also participates in events such as trivia night, club field days, bonfires, outdoor BBQs, and therapy dog study breaks.</p><br>
<p>As with other the eating clubs, Colonial has participated in the university&#39;s annual Lawnparties music festival, hosting artists such as Between Friends, Crash Adams, and Weston Estate in recent years. Traditions at Colonial include its annual medieval feast and thesis phrase, where members attempt to insert a humorous line into their Princeton University senior thesis.</p><br>
<p>Colonial&#39;s large, white columns are often seen illuminated by lights on Friday nights, when the club is open to students of Princeton University and other members of the Princeton community.</p><br>
<p>As an eating club, Colonial members often have breakfast, lunch, and dinner at the clubhouse daily, with brunch served on the weekends. The clubs buffet-style meals often feature an open grill, smoothie station, and panini bar. Other popular options include the clubs fresh oysters, BBQ ribs, udon, fish tacos, Korean short ribs, and pork buns. In the 1960s, Colonial was the second of the eating clubs to offer a vegetarian contract, which was slightly cheaper than the regular meal plan offered to members.</p><br>
<h3>Academics and community service</h3><br>
<p>Colonial has been committed to maintaining a rigorous scholarly community and providing professional opportunities to its members. The club&#39;s Professor Dinner Series allows members and guests to debate and discuss various topics with university professors, who are invited weekly to the club to discuss their research or engage in conversation. Furthermore, the club manages a student-run portfolio of over $100,000 in assets under management (AUM) and hosts its own in-house software development team.</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club has enjoyed a long-standing partnership with the Princeton-Blairstown Center, a program founded in 1908 by Princeton University students and faculty that attempts to transform the lives of young people through character-building experiences. The club holds an annual charity talent show in order to raise money for a variety of nonprofit organizations including HomeFront NJ. In addition, Colonial Club is noted for its enthusiasm towards influenza vaccines, leading all Princeton eating clubs in flu shots for H1N1, H5N1, and every major flu strain seen since 1975. This was sparked by Colonial&#39;s loss of 90% of its members to the 1918 flu pandemic.</p><br>
<h3>Management</h3><br>
<p>As with the past century, Colonial Club is managed by the Graduate Board of Governors, composed of graduate members of the club, and the Undergraduate Officers, who are elected each December. Colonial Club&#39;s executive chef, Gilberto Ramirez, has been in post for over 11 years. Ramirez graduated from the French Culinary Institute and previously worked at TPC Jasna Polana. The club is also directed by a club manager, Kathleen Galante, who oversees day-to-day affairs.</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club celebrated its 125th anniversary under graduate president Joseph Studholme 84, who has led the board since 2009, and undergraduate president Christopher J. Yu 17. Continuing its 1934 tradition of having formal member-alumni dinners, the club held its 125th Anniversary Celebration with a cruise dinner aboard the Atlantica Yacht on the New York Harbor.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Pete Conrad 53, the third man to walk on the Moon, was a Colonial member. Conrad carried five Princeton flags to the Moon; he later gave one to the club. This memento was destroyed in a fire while it was being framed for display at Colonials "Burn Baby Burn" Pyrotechnic extravaganza.</p><br>
<p>Other famous Colonial alumni include the late Rhode Island senator Claiborne Pell 40, famous for creation of Pell grants in 1973; novelist and two-time Pulitzer Prize winner Booth Tarkington, who was a member of the original "Ye Plug and Ulster," which became Colonial; Norman Thomas 1905, the chief Socialist in the United States and Socialist candidate in every presidential election from 1928 to 1948; noted Princeton illustrator William B. Pell 1898; Eric Schmidt 76, former CEO of Google; and Edward F. Cox &#39;68, who married Tricia Nixon in the Rose Garden at the White House in 1971.</p><br>
<p>Texas Senator Ted Cruz is an alumnus of Colonial Club from the class of 1992.</p><br>
<p>Anne Holton, former Virginia Secretary of Education and the wife of USA Senator and 2016 Democratic vice presidential nominee Tim Kaine is an alumnus of Colonial Club from the class of 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Historic photographs</h2><br>
<p>Founding Class of Colonial Club, 1891.pngFounders of Colonial Club, 1891</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club Dinner, 1920.pngColonial Club Dinner- Delmonicos, N.Y., March 27, 1920</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club Dinner 1923.png1925 Colonial Club Section Dinner</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club Houseparties 1938.pngHouseparties at Colonial Club, 1938</p><br>
<p>Members of Colonial Club in the Film "Life of Woodrow Wilson".pngMembers of Colonial Club as extras in the film "The Life of Woodrow Wilson" in the early 1940s</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club Members during the height of WWII.pngColonial Club Members during the height of WWII. Several members perished during the war.</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club Members in &#39;78.pngColonial Club members in 1978, nearly 10 years after allowing women to join</p><br>
<p>Wedding Picture at Colonial, 1981.pngWedding Picture at Colonial, August 1, 1981</p><br>
<p>Colonial Club 1992 with Ted Cruz.pngColonial Club members in 1992, featuring Rafael Ted Cruz</p><br>
<p>Pete Conrad.pngColonial Club Member, Charles "Pete" Conrad &#39;53, presents Princeton University flag taken to the moon on Apollo Flight XII to Colonial Club</p><br>
<p>The Henry Street Settlement is a not-for-profit social service agency in the Lower East Side neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City that provides social services, arts programs and health care services to New Yorkers of all ages. It was founded under the name Nurses&#39; Settlement in 1893 by progressive reformer and nurse Lillian Wald.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Settlement serves about 50,000 people each year. Clients include low-income individuals and families, survivors of domestic violence, youth ages 2 through 21, individuals with mental and physical health challenges, senior citizens, and arts and culture enthusiasts who attend performances, classes and exhibitions at Henry Street&#39;s Abrons Arts Center.</p><br>
<p>The Settlement&#39;s administrative offices are still located in its original (c. 1832) federal row houses at 263, 265 and 267 Henry Street in Manhattan. Services are offered at 17 program sites throughout the area, many of them located in buildings operated by the New York City Housing Authority.</p><br>
<p>The Settlement&#39;s buildings at 263, 265 and 267 Henry Street became New York City designated landmarks in 1966. The buildings at 265 and 267 Henry Street were re-added to the NRHP in 2022 under the name Lillian Wald House.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1892, Lillian Wald, a 25-year-old nurse then enrolled in the Womens Medical College, volunteered to teach a class on home health care for immigrant women at the Louis Down-Town Sabbath and Daily School on the Lower East Side. One day, she was approached by a young girl who kept repeating "mommy... baby... blood". Wald gathered some sheets from her bed-making lesson and followed the child to her home, a cramped two-room tenement apartment. Inside, she found the childs mother who had recently given birth and in need of health care. The doctor tending to her had left because she could not afford to pay him. This was Walds first experience with poverty; she called the episode her "baptism by fire" and dedicated herself to bringing nursing care, and eventually education and access to the arts, to the immigrant poor on Manhattans Lower East Side. The next year she founded the Nurses&#39; Settlement, which later changed its name to the Henry Street Settlement.</p><br>
<p>Two years later, in 1895, Jacob Schiff, a banker and philanthropist purchased the Federal style townhouse at 265 Henry Street for the new organization to use. The building was expanded upwards with an additional story to provide more space, and Schiff donated the building to the Settlement in 1903.</p><br>
<p>The organization expanded again in 1906, when Morris Loeb bought the building at 267 Henry Street for it to use. This Greek Revival townhouse was purchased from the Hebrew Technical School for Girls, which had previously employed the architectural firm of Buchman & Fox in 1900 to redo the facade in Colonial Revival style.</p><br>
<p>In 1915, the Neighborhood Playhouse, one of the first "Little Theatres", was created by the sisters Alice and Irene Lewisohn at the corner of Grand and Pitt Streets, offering classical drama for the people of the area. The theater still operates, as the Harry De Jur Playhouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, the Henry Street Music School began operation. It had its formal opening in November 1928. Early supporters of this addition to the settlement included Aaron Copland and Walter Damrosch. In 1937, the school premiered the play-opera The Second Hurricane, which featured music by Copland, libretto by Edwin Denby, direction by Orson Welles, and orchestral conduction by Lehman Engel. The director at the time, Grace Spofford, initially suggested the idea of a play-opera for school performers, and was largely responsible for bringing the production together. Alumni of the music school include violinists Berl Senofsky, Stuart Canin, Isidor Lateiner, and Helen Kwalwasser (who later became a faculty member); pianists Martin Canin and Jacob Lateiner; and singer Billie Lynn Daniel. Faculty have included violinist Ivan Galamian, pianist Isabelle Vengerova, bassoonist Stephen Maxym, conductor Arnold Gamson, and composers Paul Creston, Roy Harris, and Robert Starer.</p><br>
<p>The Settlement began leasing the townhouse at 263 Henry Street, on the other side of its original building, in 1938, using it for classrooms and residences, and in 1949 it purchased the building, which was originally built in the Federal style but had been extensively altered. This combining of the three townhouse – 263, 265 and 267 – had the consequence of preserving part of the 1820s streetscape amid what later became a crowded tenement district. The block of Henry Street between Montgomery Street and Grand Street, which also includes St. Augustine&#39;s Church, gives an impression of uptown Manhattan as it would have looked in the 1820s and 1830s. #263 Henry Street was restored in 1989 and #265 in 1992.</p><br>
<p>Henry Street is known for its pioneering efforts in social service and health care delivery. Its innovations included the establishment of one of New York Citys first off-street playgrounds (1902); funding the first public school nurse (1902); starting the Visiting Nurse Service, which became independent as the Visiting Nurse Service of New York in 1944; opening one of the nations first mental health clinics (1946), one of the first transitional housing facilities for the homeless (1972), the first Naturally Occurring Retirement Community (NORC) in public housing (1994) and the city&#39;s first Safe Haven shelter for homeless women (2007).</p><br>
<p>In 2018, Sylvia Bloom, a secretary at Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton for 67 years, donated $6.24 million to the settlement&#39;s Expanded Horizons College Success Program, which helps disadvantaged students prepare for and complete college.</p><br>
<p>In honor of Henry Street&#39;s 125th anniversary, American artist, KAWS, collaborated with the Settlement to hold an interactive workshop for art students from the Lower East Side community.</p><br>
<p>At his passing, actor and comedian Jerry Stiller, bequeathed an undisclosed sum to Henry Street Settlement&#39;s Abrons Arts Center and Boys & Girls Republic, community programs that aid in the educational and artistic development of Lower Ease Side youth.</p><br>
<p>In 2021, the New York State Historic Preservation Office approved Henry Street Settlements headquarters at 265–267 Henry Street as an LGBT historic site. The designation is founded upon Lillian Walds romantic and platonic relationships with the women she affectionately called "The Family" (a concept commonly used in women-run settlement houses), who provided an essential support network for her from the 1890s until her retirement in the 1930s.</p><br>
<h2>Services</h2><br>
<p>Henry Street Settlement offers:</p><br>
<p>Housing – Four homeless shelters, including one for domestic violence survivors, and supportive permanent housing for formerly homeless individuals with mental health issues.</p><br>
<p>Senior Programs – a Naturally Occurring Retirement Community, the Good Companions Senior Center, a Senior Companion Program and a Meals-on-Wheels program.</p><br>
<p>Youth Programs – Day care centers, after-school services, college prep programs, youth employment, GED classes, sports and recreation programs, a peer HIV prevention program, and summer day camp.</p><br>
<p>Workforce Development Center – Job training and placement, customized staffing services.</p><br>
<p>Health and Wellness Services – State-licensed mental and primary care clinics, psychological counseling, continuing day treatment program, a parent center, HIV family services, and home housekeeping services.</p><br>
<p>Neighborhood Resource Center – A walk-in facility for benefits screening, legal counseling and access to affordable health insurance.</p><br>
<p>Abrons Arts Center – Located at 466 Grand Street, the Abrons Arts Center offers arts instruction (dance, music, visual arts and theater) at affordable prices to children and adults and offers performances in three theaters, including the playhouse (circa 1915). It also has visual arts exhibitions, artist-in-residence workspaces, an arts-in-education program, and two summer camps (arts and architecture).</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>The House on Henry Street by Lillian Wald</p><br>
<p>The House on Henry Street: The Enduring Life of a Lower East Side Settlement, by Ellen Snyder-Grenier</p><br>
<p>The Avery Coonley House, also known as the Coonley House or Coonley Estate was designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Constructed 1908–12, this is a residential estate of several buildings built on the banks of the Des Plaines River in Riverside, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. It is itself a National Historic Landmark and is included in another National Historic Landmark, the Riverside Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Avery Coonley House (built 1908–12) in Riverside, Illinois, is located on a unique small peninsula surrounded by the Des Plaines River. Of the few estates that Frank Lloyd Wright developed, it is one of his largest and most elaborate Prairie School-homes ever built. It is one of just three multi-building prairie complexes built by the famed architect. The other two are the Dana–Thomas House and the Darwin D. Martin House complexes. The Coonley house is also the first example in Wrights work of a zoned plan. The raised second floor includes three zones: The public area (living room and dining room), the bedroom wing (with its pendant guest wing) and finally the kitchen and servants areas. The original residence was over-9000-square-feet and built on a ten-acre parcel. The entrance halls, playroom and sewing room are on the ground floor. An entire complex of interrelated buildings with extensive raised and sunken gardens was designed by landscape architect Jens Jensen. The main structure of the Avery Coonley Estate is the public-living room wing, located on Bloomingbank Road and behind that facing Scottswood Road is the bedroom wing of the mansion. The complex also includes a separate stable-coach house and gardeners cottage (1911). Along with the Robie House, the Coonley Estate represents the maturation of Wright&#39;s Prairie Style, typified by wide overhanging eaves, bands of art glass casement windows, free-flowing interior spaces and the harmonious blending of site and structure.</p><br>
<p>Avery Coonley, a Chicago industrialist and his wife, Queene Ferry of the Detroit-based Ferry Seed Company, were both heirs to industrial fortunes and had an unlimited budget to commission a new residence. The Coonleys had investigated Wright&#39;s other homes and told him that they saw in his work "the countenances of principle". Wright stated in his autobiography that "This was to me a great and sincere compliment. So I put my best into the Coonley House." Wright considered the Coonley House among his finest works and gave the Coonleys a residence that blended indoors and out and felt as much like a little village as a home, given the way the courtyards, buildings, and garden walls interconnected. He designed all the features and furnishings within the home, including rugs and textiles. The designs of the Coonley House were included in his 1907 exhibition at the Chicago Architectural Club. Construction began a year later.</p><br>
<p>A philanthropic couple, The Coonleys had progressive beliefs which included early education for children. At the age of four years, their only daughter Elizabeth was too young to attend the local school. To educate her child and others, Queene Ferry requested that Wright design a kindergarten, the Avery Coonley School Playhouse, in 1912 on nearby Fairbank Road, a block away from the main residence. The art glass windows of the Coonley Playhouse feature one of Frank Lloyd Wrights best known designs. A pattern based on balloons, confetti and American flags, very festive for the intended use of the structure, the design used in these windows was artistically striking and represents Wrights first departure from his signature style using only straight lines. Except for a few relatively plain panes, the windows of the Coonley Playhouse are now all replicas, the originals having been removed in the middle of the 20th century at a time when Wright&#39;s work was either being saved or dissected and sold for large sums of money. Many of the originals can be seen in museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and The Art Institute of Chicago which prominently displays one of the windows near its main entrance. The colored side of the art glass windows faced the inside of the house, while the side that faces exterior is white. The kindergarten school moved from the Coonley Playhouse in Riverside to a larger facility in Downers Grove in 1916 and eventually became a full K-8 elementary school and still exists today. The original Coonley Playhouse near the estate in Riverside is currently a private residence.</p><br>
<p>Alterations to the Coonley Estate have been made through the years, by Wright and others. A year after the house was completed, Wright modified the terrace pavilion, adding bands of art glass doors and windows to allow more light into the second-floor living room and children&#39;s playroom below. A pergola with noticeable Asian influences was also added. Avery Coonley sold the house in 1921 to Peter Kroehler, a furniture manufacturer from Naperville, Illinois. Several architectural changes were made during this period including a sun-room addition to the south, the lily pond was converted into a swimming pool and a pool house was added - probably designed by Harry Robinson, an apprentice under Wright at both Oak Park and Taliesin.</p><br>
<p>In 1952 the property was threatened with demolition to make way for 14 ranch homes. A compromise was reached that allowed developer Arnold Skow to divide the main house into north and south halves by inserting a firewall, build five new houses on the property and convert the gardener&#39;s cottage and stable into separate residences and addresses. The raised gardens were sold off and a modern house was built on the property. Even with these radical changes, the house retains nearly all of its original exterior and interior design details, including approximately 270 original art glass windows and doors.</p><br>
<p>A heater for the swimming pool exploded on June 11, 1978, setting a fire that destroyed the living room of the main house and one of the bedrooms. In 2000 salvage and restoration work was performed on light screens and millwork on the north half of the house including stucco and roof repair, restoration of the original gravel driveway and the reconversion of the swimming pool back to the original lily pond. The entire north side of the house has been meticulously restored to its original splendor including the re-creation of the George Mann Niedecken living room mural as well as the decorative tulip designed tile frieze along with many light screens that surround the perimeter of the house.</p><br>
<p>During his lifetime, Frank Lloyd Wright built approximately 532 homes, museums, and office buildings. Many have been demolished, but more than 400 Wright-designed buildings still stand. Of the approximately 2,500 NHLs in the United States, twenty-eight were designed by Wright. Included is The Avery Coonley House which is the largest privately owned Frank Lloyd Wright residence to be recognized by the United States Secretary of the Interior. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The village of Riverside, founded in 1869 as the nation&#39;s first planned community, was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted – designer of both Central Park in New York City and Jackson Park (fairgrounds of the Chicago Columbian Exposition of 1893). The streets of Riverside wind and crisscross, forming small islands of houses and green space; quite a contrast to the strict grid of nearby Chicago.</p><br>
<p>The Astoria Column is a tower in the northwest United States, overlooking the mouth of the Columbia River on Coxcomb Hill in Astoria, Oregon. Built in 1926, the concrete and steel structure is part of a 30 acre city park called Astor Park.</p><br>
<p>The 125 ft-tall column has a 164-step spiral staircase ascending to an exterior observation deck at the top.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The tower was built in 1926 with financing by the Great Northern Railway and Vincent Astor, the great-grandson of John Jacob Astor, in commemoration of the citys role in the familys business history. Patterned after the Trajan Column in Rome (and Place Vendôme Column in Paris), the Astoria Column was dedicated on July 22, 1926. Maintenance work was done in 1936. In 1974, the column was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The murals that make up the column were refurbished in 1995 and a granite plaza was added in 2004.</p><br>
<p>The column was one of a series of monuments erected by Great Northern between 1925 and 1926.</p><br>
<h2>Details</h2><br>
<p>The 125 ft column stands atop 600 ft Coxcomb Hill and includes an interior spiral staircase that leads to an observation deck at the top. The spiral sgraffito frieze on the exterior of the structure has a width of nearly 7 ft and a length of 525 ft. Projected by Electus D. Litchfield and painted by Attilio Pusterla, the mural shows 14 significant events in the early history of Oregon, as well as 18 scenes from the history of the region, including Captain Gray&#39;s discovery of the Columbia River in 1792 and the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The frieze starts with the "pristine forest" and concludes with the arrival of the railway in Astoria.</p><br>
<p>Constructed of concrete, its foundation is 12 ft deep. Built at a cost of, the tower has 164 steps to the top, where there is a replica of the State Seal of Oregon.</p><br>
<p>A plaque near the column commemorates the pioneering Community Antenna Television (CATV) system built by local resident Leroy E. "Ed" Parsons, initially at the Hotel Astoria, in which twin-lead transmission wires redistributed the signal of KRSC-TV (now KING-TV) in Seattle, Washington to area homes. Former Astoria resident Byron Roman was also involved in early cable invention and distribution.</p><br>
<p>The cast-iron spiral staircase inside the column was closed for safety reasons in November 2007. It was reopened to the public in time for the Regatta in August 2009.</p><br>
<p>The Alice M. Ward Library is the public library serving Canaan, Essex County, Vermont. It is located at 27 Park St., in a former stagecoach inn, historically known as Jacobs Stand, built in 1846. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Building history and architecture</h2><br>
<p>Built in 1846 by Fernando C. Jacobs as an inn or stand, the building was the northernmost stop on the stage route to Montreal, Quebec, Canada East. Due to Jacob&#39;s known stance against slavery, local folklore considers the building to be the former northernmost USA stop on the Connecticut River route of the 19th century Underground Railroad. However, there is no evidence supporting the theory. The building was sold in 1888 to physician Artemas Ward and later bequest to the town of Canaan as a public library in 1930 after the death of his wife Alice. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its distinctive Neo-Palladian temple-form design.</p><br>
<p>The library stands on the west side of the triangular town common in the center of Canaan village, near the southern end of Park Street where it meets Vermont Route 102. The building is a -story timber-framed structure, with a gabled roof and clapboarded exterior. The gable faces the street, and projects over a recessed porch, which has round Ionic columns for support. Recessed into the gable on the attic level is a rounded second-story porch area, giving the front its Palladian form. The main entrance is flanked by sidelight windows and pilasters, and is topped by a corniced entablature. The interior retains period Federal style woodwork, including a particularly fine central staircase.</p><br>
<h2>Services</h2><br>
<p>According to 2000 Census figures as reported by the Vermont Department of Libraries, the Alice M. Ward Library serves a population of 1078, with a staff of two. While located in Canaan, it offers free library cards to all patrons, including seasonal visitors and those from neighboring towns. The Canaan Historical Society uses the top floor of the library for historical displays and public activities.</p><br>
<p>The library offers 24-hour wireless DSL Internet access and offers 4 computers for public use. It does not use content filtering. The library offers nontraditional items for public circulation, including snowshoes, a typewriter, cameras, craft items and Dremels. Other electronics, including a Sphero and Samsung Galaxy Tab 4s, are available for in-library use or used in library programming. Additionally, there is an Oculus Rift virtual reality headset available for use of the public. The library was reported in 2016 as meeting all state standards. In 2018 the library began an oral history project with a particular focus on the Ethan Allen factory in Beecher Falls.</p><br>
<h2>Educational programs</h2><br>
<p>The Alice Ward Library offers several educational programs for a variety of ages year-round. The library has a multitude of STEM-focused opportunities, such as a regularly meeting technology club. The library also runs a FIRST Lego League team as well as a FIRST Tech Challenge team.</p><br>
<p>The Richard Nixon Birthplace is the birthplace and early childhood home of Richard Nixon, the 37th president of the United States. It is located on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California, and serves as a historic house museum.</p><br>
<p>The house was built in 1912 on family ranchland; Nixon was born there the following year. He and his family stayed there until 1922, when they moved to Whittier, California. The former home was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973, and a California Historical Landmark in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum is located on the north side of Yorba Linda Boulevard at its junction with Eureka Avenue, west of downtown Yorba Linda. The property is dominated by the museum complex and parking lot; the Birthplace is located in a slightly secluded setting east of the main building, in a grove of trees. It is a story Craftsman-style bungalow, with a gabled roof and clapboarded exterior. The north roof face has a broad shed-roof dormer projecting, and a gabled hood shelters the main entrance. Some of its windows feature diamond-pane sashes or panels.</p><br>
<p>The house was built in 1912 from a mail-order construction kit by Francis A. Nixon, on ranchland owned by the family. Richard Nixon was born in this house the following year, and the family remained here until 1922, when they moved to Whittier. Francis Nixon sold off portions of the 8 acre property in 1922 and 1925, with the largest part going to the Yorba Linda School District for the construction of a school. The district purchased the rest of the tract in 1948, using the house as employee housing.</p><br>
<p>Nixon formed a nonprofit library organization in 1968, after winning his first election as president. The school district deeded the property over to that organization in 1988. The school was torn down, and the museum established on the premises.</p><br>
<p>Wanamaker, originally known as John Wanamaker Department Store, was one of the first department stores in the United States. Founded by John Wanamaker in Philadelphia in 1861, it was influential in the development of the retail industry including as the first store to use price tags.</p><br>
<p>At its zenith in the early 20th century, Wanamakers also had a store in New York City at Broadway and 9th Street in Manhattan. Both employed extremely large staffs. By the end of the 20th century, there were 16 Wanamakers outlets. After years of change, the chain was bought by A. Alfred Taubman in late 1986, and added to Taubman&#39;s previous purchase of Woodward & Lothrop, the Washington, D.C., department store.</p><br>
<p>In 1994, Woodies, as it was known, filed for bankruptcy. The assets of Woodies were purchased by the May Company Department Stores and JCPenney. In 1995, Wanamakers transitioned to Hechts, one of the May Company brands.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, Macys opened in the former Philadelphia Wanamakers Department Store, now called Macy&#39;s Center City. The building is a National Historic Landmark. One of its expansions was designed by master architect Daniel Burnham. It contains the Wanamaker Organ, the largest functional organ in the world.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>John Wanamaker was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1838. Due to a persistent cough, he was unable to join the USA Army to fight in the American Civil War, so instead started a career in business.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, he and his brother-in-law Nathan Brown founded a mens clothing store in Philadelphia called Oak Hall. Wanamaker carried on the business alone after Browns death in 1868. Eight years later, Wanamaker purchased the abandoned Pennsylvania Railroad station for use as a new, larger retail location. The concept was to renovate the terminal into a "Grand Depot" similar to Londons Royal Exchange or Pariss Les Halles and forerunners of the modern department store that were well known in Europe at that time.</p><br>
<p>The Wanamakers Grand Depot opened in time to service the public visiting Philadelphia for the American Centennial Exposition of 1876, and in fact resembled one of the many pavilions at that worlds fair because of its fanciful new Moorish Revival façade. In 1877, the interior of Wanamakers was refurbished and expanded to include not only mens clothing, but womens clothing and dry goods as well. This was Philadelphias first modern-day department store, and one of the earliest founded in America. A circular counter was placed at the center of the building, and concentric circles radiated around it with 129 counters of goods. The store also accepted mail orders, though it was not a large business until the early twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>Wanamaker first thought of how he would run a store on new principles when, as a youth, a merchant refused his request to exchange a purchase. A practicing Christian, he chose not to advertise on Sundays. Before he opened his Grand Depot for retail business, he let evangelist Dwight L. Moody use its facilities as a meeting place, while Wanamaker provided 300 ushers from his store personnel. His retail advertisements—the first to be copyrighted beginning in 1874—were factual, and promises made in them were kept.</p><br>
<p>Wanamaker guaranteed the quality of his merchandise in print, allowed his customers to return purchases for a cash refund and offered the first restaurant to be located inside a department store. Wanamaker also invented the price tag.</p><br>
<p>His employees were to be treated respectfully by management (including not being scolded in public), and John Wanamaker & Company offered its employees access to the John Wanamaker Commercial Institute, as well as free medical care, recreational facilities, profit sharing plans, and pensions—long before these types of benefits were considered standard in corporate employment.</p><br>
<p>Innovation and "firsts" marked Wanamaker&#39;s. The store was the first department store with electrical illumination (1878), first store with a telephone (1879), and the first store to install pneumatic tubes to transport cash and documents (1880).</p><br>
<p>Wanamakers commissioned a Philadelphia/New Jersey artist, George Washington Nicholson (1832–1912), to paint a large landscape mural, "The Old Homestead", which was finished in March 1892. The 7 by mural was still owned by Wanamakers in 1950, but has since passed into a private collection.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1910, Wanamaker replaced his Grand Depot in stages, and constructed a new, purpose-built structure on the same site in Center City Philadelphia. The new store, built in the Florentine style with granite walls by Chicago architect Daniel H. Burnham, had 12 floors (nine for retail), numerous galleries and two lower levels totaling nearly two million square feet. The palatial emporium featured the Wanamaker Organ, the former St. Louis Worlds Fair pipe organ, at the time one of the worlds largest organs. The organ was installed in the store&#39;s marble-clad central atrium known as the Grand Court. Another item from the St. Louis Fair in the Grand Court is the large bronze eagle, which quickly became the symbol of the store and a favorite meeting place for shoppers. All one had to say was "Meet You at The Eagle" and everyone knew where to go. The store was dedicated by President William Howard Taft on December 30, 1911.</p><br>
<p>Despite its size, the organ was deemed insufficient to fill the Grand Court with its music. Wanamakers responded by assembling its own staff of organ builders and expanding the organ several times over a period of years. The "Wanamaker Organ" is the largest fully operational pipe organ in the world, with some 28,750 pipes. It is famed for the delicate, orchestra-like beauty of its tone as well as its incredible power. The organ still stands in place in the store today and free recitals are held twice every day except Sunday. Visitors are also invited to tour the organs console area and meet with staff after recitals. Once a year, usually in June, "Wanamaker Organ Day" is held, which is a free recital which lasts most of the day. The New York store also housed a large organ; it was sold at auction in 1955 for $1,200 (~$ in ) after the New York store closed the year prior.</p><br>
<p>News of the Titanics sinking was transmitted to Wanamakers wireless station in New York City, and given to anxious crowds waiting outside—yet another first for an American retail store. Public Christmas Caroling in the store&#39;s Grand Court began in 1918.</p><br>
<p>In 1919, El Mundo, a Spanish newspaper, reported that Wanamaker&#39;s New York store had 100 specialized departments all under one roof, including a El Departamento de Latino-Americano de Servicio Personal (The Department of Personal Service for Latin-Americans).</p><br>
<p>Other innovations included employing buyers to travel overseas to Europe each year for the latest fashions, the first White sale (1878) and other themed sales such as the February "Opportunity Sales" to keep prices as low as possible while keeping volume high. The store also broadcast its organ concerts on the Wanamaker-owned radio station WOO beginning in 1922. Under the leadership of James Bayard Woodford, Wanamaker&#39;s opened piano stores in Philadelphia and New York that did a huge business with an innovative fixed-price system of sales. Salons in period decor were used to sell the higher-price items. Wanamaker also tried selling small organs built by the Austin Organ Company for a time.</p><br>
<p>After John Wanamakers death in 1922, the business carried on under Wanamaker family ownership. Rodman Wanamaker, Johns son, enhanced the reputation of the stores as artistic centers and temples of the beautiful, offering imported luxuries from around the world. After his death in 1928, the stores (managed for the family by a trust) continued to thrive for a time. The mens clothing and accessories department was expanded into its own separate store on the lower floors of the Lincoln-Liberty Building, two doors down on Chestnut Street, in 1932. This building, which also had a private apartment for the Wanamaker family on its top floor, was sold to Philadelphia National Bank in 1952; the initials on the buildings crown read "PNB" until November 2014, even though the bank no longer existed.</p><br>
<h4>Christmas Light Show</h4><br>
<p>In 1956, the Philadelphia Wanamaker&#39;s premiered a Christmas Light Show, a large musical and blinking light display several stories high, viewable from several levels of the building. Its popularity with Philadelphia parents and children, as well as tourists, ensured a continuous run, even after the building was sold to different business interests.</p><br>
<p>For decades until 1994, the melodic baritone narrator of the show was John Facenda, known to Philadelphians for decades reporting the news on radio and television and known nationally as the voice of NFL Films. NFL Films Ed Sabol referred to Facenda as "The Voice of God". His wordsmithing and dramatic baritone delivery were highlights of the shows and did much to boost Facendas stock and mystique. Various announcers narrated the show between 1995 and 2005.</p><br>
<p>In the late 20th century, Wanamakers lost business to other retail chains, including Bloomingdales and Macy&#39;s, in the Philadelphia market. The Wanamaker Family Trust finally sold John Wanamaker and Company, with its underpatronized stores, to Los Angeles-based Carter Hawley Hale Stores for US$60 million (~$ in ) cash in 1978. Carter Hawley Hale poured another $80 million into renovating the stores, but to no avail—customers had gone elsewhere in the intervening decades and did not come back.</p><br>
<p>In late 1986, the now 15-store chain was sold to Woodward & Lothrop, owned by Detroit shopping-mall magnate A. Alfred Taubman, for around $180 million (~$ in ). Taubman reorganized the business with a shortened corporate name (Wanamakers Inc.), and poured millions more into store renovations and public relations campaigns. This too was no help, as Taubmans retail interests were heavily in debt and the stores&#39; combined sales were a disappointment.</p><br>
<p>Believing that the Wanamaker Building space was more valuable than portions of the historic Wanamaker store, the Philadelphia flagship store was reduced to its first five stories, the Juniper Street side became the lobby of an office building for the upper stories, and the former basement budget "Downstairs Store" became a parking garage. The Crystal Tea Room restaurant was closed and eventually leased to the Marriott Corporation for use as a ballroom. Personal effects of Mr. Wanamaker from his until-then preserved office on the eighth floor, and the store archives, were donated to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. In October 1987, the Wanamaker Building was sold to developer John Kusmiersky.</p><br>
<p>Woodward & Lothrop collapsed in bankruptcy, filing for Chapter 11 on January 17, 1994, and with it the Wanamaker stores, which were sold to May Department Stores Company on June 21, 1995. Wanamakers Inc. was formally dissolved, and operations were consolidated with Mays Hechts division in Arlington, Virginia. After 133 consecutive years, the Wanamakers name was removed from all stores and replaced with Hechts. In 1997, May acquired Wanamakers historic rival Strawbridge & Clothier and re-branded all Philadelphia-area Hechts locations with the Strawbridges name. The Center City Hechts (temporarily named Strawbridges) was closed for a lengthy renovation and refurbishment that saw the former Wanamaker retail space reduced in size again to three floors, and the former selling floors on the upper floors further subdivided into commercial office space. This was to prepare the way, in 1997, for New York-based Lord & Taylor, another division of May Department Stores, to open in the former Wanamakers flagship in Center City Philadelphia. In August 2006 the store was converted to Macys, operated by the Macys East Division of Federated Department Stores Inc., now Macys, Inc., which acquired May in late 2005. The New York Wanamaker&#39;s store on Broadway had retail space occupied by Kmart by 1996, and later Wegmans (2023).</p><br>
<p>The store was not immune to the major change in retailing away from regional chains to national chains. The uniformity of brand offerings and the cost savings available to national chains all worked against the viability of the store as an independent personality, although customers generally had a major say in determining store offerings and the magnificence of its commercial space did tend to cause it to be stocked with better offerings. Other retailers had also learned to offer goods with much smaller staff rosters. The ability of retailers to go national in opposition to regional tastes is still an experiment-in-progress with mixed results.</p><br>
<p>The Wanamakers flagship store, with its famous organ and eagle from the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978. In 1992, a nonprofit group, the Friends of the Wanamaker Organ, was founded to promote the preservation, restoration and presentation of the famous pipe organ.</p><br>
<p>As a retail site, the Philadelphia flagship store has proved profitable for later tenants Lord & Taylor and now Macys. With a long tradition of parades and fireworks displays, Macys has taken a prominent civic role in fostering historic Wanamaker traditions, especially the Wanamaker Organ and the Christmas Light Show.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 2006, under Macys, Julie Andrews became the shows narrator. Also in 2006, the Santa Express Train at the top of the Grand Court returned.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, the entire Christmas Light Show was completely modernized and rebuilt by Macy&#39;s Parade Studio on new trusses with lighter materials and LED lighting. In 2008, a new and bigger Magic Christmas Tree with LED lights debuted. However, due to safety concerns and logistical issues, the dancing water fountains were retired and sold.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, Macy&#39;s celebrated its 150th birthday in the Philadelphia flagship store with a concert featuring the Wanamaker Organ and the Philadelphia Orchestra that attracted a capacity audience. Currently only 3 floors of the building are still used as department store sales area.</p><br>
<p>In September 2023 the building went into receivership after a substantial loss of its commercial tenants. As of January 2024 the owners were considering the possibility of converting the building to residential spaces.</p><br>
<h2>Flagship store setup</h2><br>
<p>Ground floor: 2,500-pound "Durana" bronze eagle statue in the Grand Court, made by German sculptor August Gaul for the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exhibition and purchased by John Wanamaker; to this day, Philadelphians frequently agree to "meet me at the eagle" at Wanamaker&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>3rd floor: Egyptian Hall auditorium behind the executive offices, also a Greek Hall auditorium. As of 2008, the architecture of Egyptian Hall is obscured by the Executive Offices and Dickens Christmas Village.</p><br>
<p>8th floor: Toy department had a Rocket Express monorail (from 1946 to 1984) for the kids that traveled around the toy department, camera department, and piano and organ department. The monorail car is a static display at Philadelphia&#39;s Please Touch Museum.</p><br>
<p>9th floor: Crystal Tea Room</p><br>
<p>10th floor: In-house physician and nurses</p><br>
<p>12th floor: Wanamaker Organ Shop, where the Wanamaker Organ was enlarged by an in-house expert staff</p><br>
<p>Sub-floors: The Downstairs Store, post office, lost and found, shoe repair, the Dairy Bar restaurant. This area became a parking garage.</p><br>
<p>Radio broadcasting station</p><br>
<p>Model house on the furniture floor</p><br>
<p>Home of the world&#39;s largest playable pipe organ</p><br>
<h3>Crystal Tea Room</h3><br>
<p>Wanamakers also was home to the Crystal Tea Room restaurant on the 9th floor, which closed to the public in 1995; it was restored as a private banquet hall, accommodating sit-down receptions of up to 1,000 people. A Wanamakers guidebook from the 1920s states that the Crystal Tea Room was the largest dining room in Philadelphia, and one of the largest in the world. It once could serve 1,400 people at a time. It served breakfast in the morning, luncheon, and afternoon tea. The kitchens big ovens could roast 75 turkeys at a time and the facility was equipped with lockers and baths for the employees. In acknowledgment of John Wanamakers promotion of temperance causes, alcohol was not served in the Tea Room until after the family trust sold the store. There was informal modeling in the Tea Room.</p><br>
<p>There was also a balcony café, the Terrace on the Court, on the third floor facing the Grand Court, where shoppers could hear the Wanamaker Organ as they dined. Macy&#39;s closed this restaurant in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Suburban branch stores</h2><br>
<p>Wanamakers opened a store in Wilmington, Delaware in 1950. After the New York store closed in 1954, Wanamakers expanded to the Philadelphia suburbs, starting with the Wynnewood store in December 1954. Lehigh Valley Mall (1976), Montgomery Mall (1977) and Christiana Mall (1991, last Wanamaker&#39;s store built).</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the 1950 musical Guys and Dolls, in the song "Marry the Man Today", Adelaide sings the line, "In Wanamakers and Saks and Kleins, a lesson Ive been taught. You cant make alterations on a dress you haven&#39;t bought."</p><br>
<p>In 1981, scenes in the film Blow Out were filmed outside Wanamaker&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, much of the movie Mannequin was filmed at Wanamaker&#39;s, as was the 1991 sequel, Mannequin Two: On the Move.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, in the HBO TV series The Sopranos, jailed Lupertazzi crime boss, John "Johnny Sack" Sacramoni, tells his lawyer that he met his wife Ginny while she was working at the tie counter at Wanamaker&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park is located in the District of Columbia and the state of Maryland. The park was established in 1961 as a National Monument by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to preserve the neglected remains of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and many of its original structures.</p><br>
<p>The canal and towpath trail extends along the Potomac River from the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C., to Cumberland, Maryland, a distance of 184.5 mi. In 2013, the path was designated as the first section of USA Bicycle Route 50. With over four million visitors in 2022, it is the most-visited unit that is designated a national historical park of the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal</h2><br>
<p>Construction on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (also known as "the Grand Old Ditch" or the "C&O Canal") began in 1828 and ended in 1850 when the canal reached Cumberland, far short of its intended destination of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Occasionally there was talk of extending the 184.5-mile canal: for example, an 1874 proposal to dig an 8.4-mile tunnel through the Allegheny Mountains, and there was a tunnel built to connect with the Pennsylvania canal. Even though the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) beat the canal to Cumberland by eight years, the canal was not entirely obsolete. Only in the mid-1870s did larger locomotives and the adoption of air brakes allow the railroad to set rates lower than the canal, sealing its fate.</p><br>
<p>The C&O Canal operated from 1831 to 1924 and served primarily to transport coal from the Allegheny Mountains to Washington D.C. The canal was closed in 1924, in part due to several severe floods that devastated the canal&#39;s financial condition.</p><br>
<h3>Federal government purchases canal</h3><br>
<p>In 1938, the abandoned canal was obtained from the B&O Railroad by the United States in exchange for a loan from the federal Reconstruction Finance Corporation. The government planned to restore it as a recreation area. Additionally, it was viewed as a project for employment for the jobless during the Great Depression. By 1940, the first 22 mi of the canal were repaired and rewatered, from Georgetown to Violettes lock (Lock 23) and returned to operating condition by African-American enrollees with the Civilian Conservation Corps. The first Canal Clipper boat, giving mule-driven rides, began in 1941. It was later replaced by the John Quincy Adams in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The project was halted when the United States entered World War II and resources were needed elsewhere. In 1941, Harry Athey suggested to President Franklin Roosevelt that the canal could be converted into an underground highway or a bomb shelter with its roof for landing airplanes. The whole idea was deemed impractical due to the river&#39;s periodic flooding. In 1942, freshets destroyed the rewatered sections of the canal. National Park Service (NPS) official Arthur E. Demaray pressed that the canal from Dam #1 be restored, to supply water to the Dalecarlia Reservoir in case sabotage or bombing destroyed the normal conduits of water. Since this transformed the canal into a concern of national security, in 1942, the War Production Board approved the work. By 1943, Congress had funded the work, repairs were done, and the Park Service resumed boat trips in October 1943.</p><br>
<p>Congress expressed interest in developing the canal and towpath as a parkway. Because of the flooding from the 1920s to the 1940s, the Army Corps of Engineers proposed building 14 dams, that would have permanently inundated 74 miles of towpath, as well as the Monocacy and Antietam aqueducts. Around 1945, the Corps wanted to remove Dam #8, which would destroy any hope of rewatering the canal above Dam #5, as well as put a levee around in the Cumberland area. Much of this was done, with the NPS cooperating with the Corps, since maintaining an operating canal all the way to Cumberland was too expensive, as well as wanting to preserve the western parts of the canal.</p><br>
<h2>Creation of the national park</h2><br>
<h3>The Douglas hike</h3><br>
<p>The idea of turning the canal over to automobiles was opposed by some, including United States Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas. In March 1954, Douglas led an eight-day hike of the towpath from Cumberland to D.C. 58 people participated in one part of the hike or another; nine, including Douglas, Merlo J. Pusey, and Olaus Murie, hiked the full 184.5 mi. Afterwards, Douglas formed a committee, renamed in 1957 the C&O Canal Association, that drafted plans to preserve and protect the Canal. Douglas served as the chairman.</p><br>
<h3>Towpath</h3><br>
<p>In 1958, the entire path was cleared for hiking and a 12-mile bicycle trail was built on the towpath, from Georgetown&#39;s Mule Bridge at 34th Street in Washington, DC to Widewater, a meander cutoff of the Potomac in Maryland. The bicycle trail was built by laying crushed blue stone over the muddy towpath and opened on November 22, 1958. Cyclists were biking the full route by 1960.</p><br>
<h3>National monument, then national historical park</h3><br>
<p>In 1961, President Dwight Eisenhower made the canal a national monument under the Antiquities Act, but that hardened the opposition to making the canal a national park. There was some support for making the Potomac River a national river instead. Within ten years, the political climate had changed, and realizing that the national river plan was unsupportable, the idea of turning the canal into a historic park had little opposition. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park Act established the canal as a National Historical Park and President Richard Nixon signed it into law on January 8, 1971.</p><br>
<h3>Floods of 1996</h3><br>
<p>1996 saw two floods. After a blizzard in January, heavy rains washed away the snow and caused extreme flooding and run-off. The flood swept across 80 to 90 percent of the canal and towpath, damaging them and other park infrastructure. Volunteers helped repair the damage.</p><br>
<p>In September, Hurricane Fran caused more damage to the canal. Restoring the towpath and re-watering required much time, money, and volunteer effort.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration efforts</h3><br>
<p>Today, several organizations work to preserve and restore the parks beauty and history. The C&O Canal Trust, founded in 2007, is the official non-profit partner of the National Park Service. The C&O Canal Association is a volunteer organization established in 1954 to help conserve the natural and historical environment of the C&O Canal and the Potomac River Basin. Together they work to restore Canal infrastructure, fix eroded sections of the towpath, and re-water sections of the Canal to keep it beautiful for visitors and wildlife. They also educate the community about the Canals history at the National Park Service&#39;s six visitor centers along the canal: Georgetown, Great Falls Tavern, Brunswick, Williamsport, Hancock, and Cumberland.</p><br>
<p>Current restoration and construction efforts include restoring and rewatering the Conococheague Aqueduct, restoring Locks 3 and 4, repairs at Great Falls (Lock 20) and Swain&#39;s Lock (Lock 21). A second phase of work at the Paw Paw tunnel started on May 13, 2019.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The park includes nearly 20,000 acre in a strip along the Potomac River. A small portion of the towpath near Harpers Ferry National Historical Park doubles as a section of the Appalachian Trail.</p><br>
<p>The canal begins at its zero mile marker (accessible only via Thompson&#39;s Boat House), directly on the Potomac, opposite the Watergate complex.</p><br>
<p>In Allegany County, Maryland, the park includes the Western Maryland Railroad Right-of-Way, Milepost 126 to Milepost 160, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.</p><br>
<p>Flooding continues to threaten historical structures on the canal and attempts at restoration. The Park Service has re-watered portions of the canal, but the majority of the canal does not have water in it.</p><br>
<h3>Usage</h3><br>
<p>Varied in its geography, the canal and its towpath along with the adjacent Potomac offers activities including running, hiking, biking, fishing, boating and kayaking, as well as rock climbing in certain locations. The Canal also offers a variety of wildlife and birdwatching opportunities.</p><br>
<p>The seven National Park Service visitor centers have displays and interpretive exhibits on the history of the canal. The park offers rides on two reproduction canal boats—the Georgetown and the Charles F. Mercer (named after the first president of the Canal corporation, and not the first boat on the canal named Charles F. Mercer)—during the spring, summer and autumn. The boats are pulled by mules, and park rangers in historical dress work the locks and boat while presenting a historical program.</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park receives around five million recreation visits annually. Access through the Great Falls Tavern Visitor Center requires payment, but access anywhere else in the park is free. In January 2015, the National Park Service proposed adding entrance fees to virtually all access points along the towpath; the proposal was rescinded in February, amid backlash from communities along the canal.</p><br>
<p>On February 9, 1963, Robert F. Kennedy succeeded in hiking from Great Falls, Maryland to Harpers Ferry, West Virginia along the C&O Canal towpath as part of the "50 mile frenzy" created by his brother President John F. Kennedy. In February 2013, FreeWalkers, Inc., a New Jersey–based non-profit, created the FreeWalkers Kennedy50 50-Mile walk along the C&O Canal towpath from Old Anglers Inn to Harpers Ferry, West Virginia to commemorate RFK&#39;s historic walk and continues to be held annually.</p><br>
<h4>Hiker biker campsites</h4><br>
<p>The National Park Service maintains a number of hiker/biker campsites, about every 5 - along the towpath. A list of hiker biker campsites is available from the NPS.</p><br>
<h4>Other camping</h4><br>
<p>The C&O Canal NHP also offers tent and primitive RV campsites for individuals and group as large as 35. Not all campsites have all amenities; campsites may have some or all of parking, restrooms, picnic tables, boat ramp, and nearby shopping. Hiker-biker campsites are free of charge to use for a maximum of one night per trip. They are used under a first-come, first-served basis. As of December 1, 2016 all drive-in (car) campsites moved from a first-come, first served system to a reservation system on Recreation.gov. Group campsites are $40 during peak season and $20 during off season. Here is a list of the drive-in, reservation campsites: (data from NPS):</p><br>
<p>The Castillo de San Marcos  is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in St. Augustine, Florida.</p><br>
<p>It was designed by the Spanish engineer Ignacio Daza, with construction beginning in 1672, 107 years after the citys founding by Spanish Admiral and conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, when Florida was part of the Spanish Empire. The forts construction was ordered by Governor Francisco de la Guerra y de la Vega after a raid by the English privateer Robert Searles in 1668 that destroyed much of St. Augustine and damaged the existing wooden fort. Work proceeded under the administration of Guerra&#39;s successor, Manuel de Cendoya in 1671, and the first coquina stones were laid in 1672. The construction of the core of the current fortress was completed in 1695, although it would undergo many alterations and renovations over the centuries.</p><br>
<p>When Britain gained control of Florida in 1763 pursuant to the Treaty of Paris, St. Augustine became the capital of British East Florida, and the fort was renamed Fort St. Mark until the Peace of Paris (1783) when Florida was transferred back to Spain and the fort&#39;s original name restored. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States in 1821; consequently, the fort was designated a United States Army base and renamed Fort Marion, in honor of American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The 20.48 acre site was subsequently turned over to the United States National Park Service. In 1942 the original name, Castillo de San Marcos, was restored by an Act of Congress.</p><br>
<p>Castillo de San Marcos was attacked several times and twice besieged: first by English colonial forces led by Carolina Colony Governor James Moore in 1702, and then by English Georgia colonial Governor James Oglethorpe in 1740. However, possession of the fort has changed five times, all peaceful, among four different governments: Spain, 1695–1763 and 1783–1821, Kingdom of Great Britain, 1763–1783, and the United States, 1821–date (during 1861–1865, under control of the Confederate States of America). Owing to its strategic cannon placement and star-shaped design, the fort was never breached or taken by force throughout its various stages of sovereign ownership.</p><br>
<p>Under United States control the fort was used as a military prison to incarcerate members of Native American tribes starting with the Seminole—including the famous war chief, Osceola, in the Second Seminole War—and members of western tribes, including Geronimo&#39;s band of Chiricahua Apache. The Native American art form known as Ledger Art had its origins at the fort during the imprisonment of members of the Plains tribes such as Howling Wolf of the southern Cheyenne.</p><br>
<p>Although built in part by African slaves owned by the Spanish, the fort later served as one of the first entry points of fugitive slaves from British North America into Spanish Florida, where they were freed by the Spanish colonial authorities. This quickly led to the first free Black settlement in the future United States (Fort Mose, formed just north of St Augustine).</p><br>
<p>Ownership of the Castillo was transferred to the National Park Service in 1933, and, along with the nearby St. Augustine Historic District, has been a popular tourist destination ever since.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>The European city of St. Augustine was founded by the admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés for the Spanish Crown in 1565 on the site of a former Native American village called Seloy.</p><br>
<p>The need for fortifications was recognized after it was attacked by Sir Francis Drake and his fleet of 22 ships in 1586, and over the next 80 years, a succession of nine wooden forts were built in various locations along the coastline. After an attack in 1668 by the English pirate Robert Searle, however, during which the town of St. Augustine was burned to the ground, wooden forts were deemed inadequate, and Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, approved the construction of a masonry fortification to protect the city.</p><br>
<p>The Castillo is a masonry star fort made of a stone called coquina (Spanish for "small shells"), which consists of ancient shells that have bonded together to form a sedimentary rock similar to limestone. Native Americans from Spains nearby missions did most of the labor, with additional skilled workers brought in from Havana, Cuba. The coquina was quarried from the Kings Quarry on Anastasia Island in what is today Anastasia State Park across Matanzas Bay from the Castillo, and ferried across to the construction site. Construction began on and lasted twenty-three years, with completion in 1695.</p><br>
<p>The fort has four bastions named San Pedro, San Agustín, San Carlos, and San Pablo, with a ravelin protecting the sally port. On the two landward sides, a large glacis was constructed which would force any attackers to advance upward toward the fort&#39;s cannon and allow the cannon shot to proceed downslope for greater efficiency in hitting multiple targets. Also, the artificial mound of the glacis in front of the walls helped to protect them from direct cannon fire attempting to breach them in a siege. Immediately surrounding the fort was a moat which was usually kept dry, but that could be flooded with seawater to a depth of about 1 ft in case of attack by land.</p><br>
<p>Multiple embrasures were built into the curtain wall along the top of the fort as well as into the bastions for the deployment of a cannon of various calibers. Infantry embrasures were also built into the walls below the level of the terreplein for the deployment of muskets by the fort&#39;s defenders. It was through one of these embrasures that twenty Seminoles held as prisoners would escape in 1837.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First English siege</h3><br>
<p>In 1670, Charles Town (modern-day Charleston, South Carolina) was founded by English colonists. As it was just two days&#39; sail from St. Augustine, the English settlement and encroachment of English traders into Spanish territory spurred the Spanish in their construction of a fort.</p><br>
<p>Slaves from the Carolina colony began escaping to St Augustine in 1687, where the Spanish agreed to free (and employ) them if they converted to Catholicism. When a British master attempted to retrieve escapees in 1688, the Spanish Governor Diego de Quiroga refused. King Charles II issued an official policy in 1693, cementing the informal practice.</p><br>
<p>In 1702, English colonial forces under the command of Carolina Governor James Moore embarked on an expedition to capture St. Augustine early in Queen Anne&#39;s War. The English laid siege to St. Augustine in November 1702. About 1,500 town residents and soldiers were crammed into the fort during the two-month siege. The small English cannons had little effect on the walls of the fort, because the coquina masonry was very effective at absorbing the impact of cannonballs causing them to sink into the walls, rather than shattering or puncturing them.</p><br>
<p>The siege was broken when the Spanish fleet from Havana arrived, trapping some English vessels in the bay. The English were defeated and decided to burn their ships to prevent them from falling under Spanish control, and then marched overland back to Carolina. The town of St. Augustine was destroyed, in part by the Spanish and in part by the English, as a result of the siege.</p><br>
<h3>Second period of construction</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 1738, under the supervision of Spanish engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano, the interior of the fort was redesigned and rebuilt. Interior rooms were made deeper, and vaulted ceilings replaced the original wooden ones. The vaulted ceilings allowed for better protection from bombardments and allowed for cannon to be placed along the gun deck, not just at the corner bastions. The new ceilings required the height of the exterior wall to be increased from 26 to 33 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Second British siege</h3><br>
<p>Spain and Britain were rivals in Europe, and since the two countries had both founded empires in the New World, their rivalry continued there as well. In 1733 a British vessel, the Rebecca, commanded by Captain Robert Jenkins, was seized in the Caribbean by the Spanish coast guard. Suspecting that the British had been trading illegally with Spanish colonies (which was forbidden by both Spain and Britain), the Spanish searched the ship. A fight broke out between the Spanish and British sailors. In the skirmish, Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish officer, who picked it up and said "Take this to your king and tell him that if he were here I would serve him in the same manner!" When Jenkins reported the incident to British authorities, they used it as a pretext to declare war on Spain in 1739. The war was called the War of Jenkins&#39; Ear.</p><br>
<p>After British Admiral Edward Vernon won a huge victory at Portobelo, General James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, was quick to imitate him in North America. In June 1740, Oglethorpe and a British fleet of seven ships appeared off St. Augustine. As in the 1702 siege, three hundred soldiers and 1,300 residents found refuge within the Castillos walls. For 27 days the British bombarded the Castillo and St. Augustine. Realizing his cannon were not affecting the Castillos walls of coquina, Oglethorpe decided to starve the people of St. Augustine by blockading the inlet at the Matanzas River and all roads into St. Augustine. However, some supplies were able to reach the city via the river, and with morale and supplies low for the British forces, Oglethorpe had to retreat. In order to protect the city from future blockades and sieges, the Spanish built Fort Matanzas to guard the river, which could be used as a rear entrance to avoid St. Augustine&#39;s primary defense system.</p><br>
<h3>British occupation</h3><br>
<p>In 1763, the British managed to take control of the Castillo but not by force. As a provision of the Treaty of Paris (1763) after the Seven Years&#39; War, Britain gained all of Spanish Florida in exchange for returning Havana and Manila to Spain. On July 21, 1763, the Spanish governor turned the Castillo over to the British, who established St. Augustine as the capital of the province of East Florida, established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763.</p><br>
<p>The British made some changes to the fort, and renamed it Fort St. Mark. As Great Britain was the dominant power in North America, they were not worried about keeping the fort in top condition. This attitude prevailed until the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The fort was used as a military prison during the war. Among those imprisoned was Christopher Gadsden, the Lieutenant governor of South Carolina. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress and a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the war. He was released after 11 months.</p><br>
<p>Improvements were begun on the fort, in keeping with its new role as a base of operations for the British in the South. The gates and walls were repaired, and second floors were added to several rooms to increase the housing capacity of the fort. The Castillo saw action during the American Revolution mainly as a prison, although St. Augustine was targeted by several aborted expeditions from Georgia. Several revolutionary fighters who had been captured in Charleston were held there when it was taken by the British, including three Founding Fathers; Thomas Heyward Jr., Arthur Middleton, and Edward Rutledge. The Spanish declared war on Britain in 1779, drawing off forces from Fort St. Mark and keeping the British occupied. Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana, attacked several British-held cities in West Florida, capturing all of them. The only major British operation that used troops from St. Augustine was the poorly coordinated but successful capture of Savannah, Georgia; the city was taken by troops from New York before those from St. Augustine arrived.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the war, the Peace of Paris (1783) called for the return of Florida to Spain. On July 12, 1784, Spanish troops returned to St. Augustine.</p><br>
<h3>Second Spanish period</h3><br>
<p>When Spain regained control over Florida they found a much-changed territory. Many Spaniards had left Florida after the handover to Britain, and many British citizens stayed after it was returned to Spain. Many border problems arose between Spanish Florida and the new United States. Spain changed the name of the fort back to the Castillo de San Marcos, and continued to build upon the improvements that Britain had made to the fort in an effort to strengthen Spain&#39;s hold on the territory. However, due to increased pressure from the United States and several other factors, in 1819 Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, ceding Florida to the United States, which was transferred in 1821.</p><br>
<h3>First United States period</h3><br>
<p>Upon receiving the fort from Spain, the Americans changed its name to Fort Marion. It was named to honor General Francis Marion, an American Revolutionary War hero nicknamed "The Swamp Fox." Structurally, the Americans made few changes to the fort during this time. Many storerooms were converted to prison cells on account of their heavy doors and barred windows. Also, part of the moat was filled in and transformed into an artillery battery as part of the American coastal defense system. The original Spanish seawall was dismantled to ground level and a new seawall constructed immediately adjacent to the seaward side of the original. At this time a hotshot furnace was also built in the filled-in section of the moat behind the newly built water battery. Cannonballs were heated in the furnace to fire at wooden enemy ships.</p><br>
<p>In October 1837, during the Second Seminole War, Seminole chief Osceola was taken prisoner by the Americans while attending a peace conference near Fort Peyton under a flag of truce. He was imprisoned in Fort Marion along with his followers, including Uchee Billy, King Philip and his son Coacoochee (Wild Cat), and then transported to Fort Moultrie on Sullivans Island in Charlestons harbor. Uchee Billy was captured on September 10, 1837, and he died at the fort on November 29. His skull was kept as a curio by Frederick Weedon. The doctor also decapitated Osceola after his death in Fort Moultrie and kept the head in preservative.</p><br>
<p>On November 19, 1837, Coacoochee and nineteen other Seminole, including two women, escaped from Fort Marion. Coacoochee, known for fabricating entertaining stories, later said that only he and his friend Talmus Hadjo had escaped - by squeezing through the eight-inch (203 mm) opening of the embrasure located high in their cell and sliding down a makeshift rope into the dry moat. Hadjo, however, was not on the official list of prisoners. However the Seminole escaped, they made their way to their band&#39;s encampment at the headwaters of the Tomoka River, about forty miles south of St. Augustine. Because of their having been poorly treated, they vowed to continue fighting, and the war was prolonged for four more years. The cell from which Coacoochee escaped was long part of the official lore of the fort.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate States period</h3><br>
<p>In January 1861, Florida seceded from the United States in the opening months of the American Civil War. Union troops had withdrawn from the fort, leaving only one man behind as caretaker. On January 7, 1861, three days before Florida seceded, 125 militiamen marched on the fort by the order of Governor Madison S. Perry. The Union soldier manning the fort refused to surrender it unless he was given a receipt for it from the Confederacy. He was given the receipt, and the fort was taken by the Confederacy without a shot. General Robert E. Lee, then in command of the coastal defenses of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, ordered that most of the artillery in the fort be sent to other, more strategic, forts. This left only five cannons in the water battery to defend Fort Marion.</p><br>
<p>The Saint Augustine Blues, a militia unit formed in St. Augustine, were enrolled into the Confederate Army at Ft. Marion on August 5, 1861. They were assigned to the recently organized Third Florida Infantry as its Company B. More than a dozen former members of the St. Augustine Blues are buried in a row at the city&#39;s Tolomato Cemetery. Men from the unit were most likely part of the force that originally occupied the fort on January 7, 1861.</p><br>
<p>The fort, along with the rest of the city of St. Augustine, was reoccupied by Union troops after acting mayor Cristobal Bravo officially surrendered the city to Union Navy fleet commander Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers on March 11, 1862. The Confederate forces left the city the previous evening in anticipation of the arrival of the Union fleet under the command of Commodore Dupont.</p><br>
<h3>Second United States period</h3><br>
<p>The fort was taken back by Union forces on March 11, 1862, when the USS Wabash entered the bay, finding the city evacuated by Confederate troops. The city leaders were willing to surrender in order to preserve the town, and the city and the fort were retaken without firing a shot. Throughout the rest of the fort&#39;s operational history, it was used as a military prison.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1875, numerous Native American prisoners were held at the fort in the aftermath of the Indian Wars in the west. Many would die at the fort. Among the captives were Chief White Horse of the Kiowa, and Chief Grey Beard of the southern Cheyenne.</p><br>
<p>During this period, Richard Henry Pratt, a Civil War veteran, supervised the prisoners and upgraded the conditions for them. He removed the prisoners shackles and allowed them out of the casemates where they had been confined. He developed ways to give the men more autonomy and attempted to organize educational and cultural programs for them. They became a center of interest to northerners vacationing in St. Augustine, who included teachers and missionaries. Pratt recruited volunteers to teach the Indian prisoners English, the Christian religion, and elements of American culture. He and most US officials believed that such assimilation was needed for the Indians survival in the changing society.</p><br>
<p>The men were also encouraged to make art; they created hundreds of drawings. Some of the collection of Ledger Art by Fort Marion artists is held by the Smithsonian Institution. It may be viewed online.</p><br>
<p>Encouraged by the men&#39;s progress in education, residents and visitors to St. Augustine raised funds for scholarships to support nearly 20 of the former prisoners in college after they were released from Ft. Marion. Seventeen men attended the Hampton Institute, a historically black college established in 1868 for freedmen by the American Missionary Association.</p><br>
<p>Others were sponsored and educated in New York State at private colleges. Among the latter were David Pendleton Oakerhater, as he became known, who was sponsored by US Senator George H. Pendleton (D-OH) and his wife. Oakerhater studied and later was ordained as an Episcopal priest. He returned to the West to work as a missionary with Indian tribes. He was later recognized by the Episcopal Church as a saint.</p><br>
<p>Pratt&#39;s experiences at Fort Marion were the basis for his campaign to create American Indian boarding schools. He was authorized to found the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in 1879, which became a model for other government-funded boarding schools established by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It operated until 1918. At their peak, some 350-450 schools were established, and only 25 were off-reservation. prisoners at Ft. Marion</p><br>
<p>From 1886 to 1887, approximately 491 Apaches were held prisoner at Fort Marion; many were of the Chiricahua and Warm Springs Apache bands from Arizona. There were 82 men and the rest were women and children. Among the men, 14, including Chatto, had previously been paid scouts for the US Army. Among the Chiricahua were members of the notable chief Geronimo&#39;s band, including his wife. Geronimo was sent to Fort Pickens, in violation of his agreed terms of surrender. While at the fort, many of the prisoners had to camp in tents, as there was not sufficient space for them. At least 24 Apache died as prisoners and were buried in North Beach.</p><br>
<p>In 1898, over 200 deserters from the Spanish–American War were imprisoned at the fort. This marked one of the last uses of the fort as an operational base. In 1900, the fort was taken off the active duty rolls after 205 years of service under five different flags.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>In 1924, Fort Marion was designated as a National Monument. In 1933 it was transferred to the National Park Service from the War Department.</p><br>
<p>In 1942, in honor of its Spanish heritage, Congress authorized renaming the fort as Castillo de San Marcos.</p><br>
<p>In 1964 the Castillo figured in the civil rights movement, when the "Freedom Tree" on the fort green became a gathering place for demonstrators who were not welcome across the street on what was state or private property in the age of segregation. The demonstrations in St. Augustine, led by Robert Hayling, Hosea Williams, and Martin Luther King played an important role in bringing about passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, one of the two great legislative accomplishments of the movement.</p><br>
<p>As a historic property of the National Park Service, the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on October 15, 1966. The National Park Service manages the Castillo together with Fort Matanzas National Monument. In 1975, the Castillo was designated an Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.</p><br>
<p>Since being transferred to the Park Service, the Castillo has become a popular tourist attraction. It occupies in downtown St. Augustine, Florida.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The fort has been featured on many television shows including Monumental Mysteries and Ghost Adventures, as well as the 1951 film Distant Drums.</p><br>
<p>The East Hawaii Cultural Center  is an art gallery, community theater, and cultural center in downtown Hilo, Hawaii. EHCC features regular art exhibitions with free or suggested donation entry to the general public. Founded by an umbrella group of local arts organizations, the Center is housed in a historic former police station facing Kalakaua Park.</p><br>
<h2>Building history</h2><br>
<p>The building was listed as site 79000752 on the National Register of Historic Places on September 4, 1979.</p><br>
<p>The two-story structure is built from reinforced concrete with wooden interiors.</p><br>
<p>It is located at 141 Kalakaua Street, coordinates 19&deg;43&prime;29&Prime;N latitude, 155&deg;05&prime;18&Prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<p>The area had been used for civic buildings since about 1817, with the park across the street created by King David Kalākaua in 1877. In February 1969 the court was moved to a new state office building, and in 1975 the police department moved to a larger building, leaving it vacant.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural Council</h2><br>
<p>The East Hawaii Cultural Council was founded in 1967, and leased the building which was planned for demolition.</p><br>
<p>The Marine Air Terminal  is an airport terminal at LaGuardia Airport in Queens, New York City, United States. Its main building, designed in the Art Deco style by William Delano of the firm Delano & Aldrich, opened in 1940. The terminal was built to handle Pan Am&#39;s fleet of flying boats, the Boeing 314 Clippers, which landed on the nearby Bowery Bay. Technological advances after World War II made the Clippers obsolete, and the Marine Air Terminal was renovated in 1946 to serve conventional planes. the terminal is used by Spirit Airlines for flights to various destinations around the USA</p><br>
<p>The Marine Air Terminal was LaGuardia Airports original terminal for overseas flights. It was highly popular in the 1940s, when LaGuardia was the only major airport in the USA which offered regular flights to Europe. Traffic dropped drastically after the larger Idlewild Airport opened in 1948, and Clippers stopped serving the terminal in 1952. The terminal then served as the airports general aviation terminal for more than three decades, except for a short period in the 1950s, when it was used by Northeast Airlines. The Pan Am Shuttle service started operating from Marine Air Terminal in 1986. Delta Air Lines took over the service in 1991, operating Delta Shuttle flights from the terminal until 2017, after which it was used by various carriers. The terminal has been renovated multiple times throughout its history.</p><br>
<p>The main terminal building consists of a two-story circular core with a projecting entrance pavilion and a pair of two-story wings. The brick facade is painted buff, with black details, and contains a frieze that depicts flying fish. The three-story rectangular entrance pavilion contains a canopy and a set of doors leading to the terminal&#39;s main rotunda. The rotunda contains marble floors and walls, as well as the Flight mural by James Brooks. Both the interior and the exterior of the main building were designated as New York City landmarks in 1980, and the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. In addition, there was a hangar for seaplanes next to the main building, which has been converted into a garage for snow-removal vehicles.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following Charles Lindbergh&#39;s transatlantic flight in 1927, commercial air travel in the United States increased during the 1930s. New York City was in dire need of a new airport by 1934, after Fiorello H. La Guardia was elected mayor. Angered that a flight on which he was a passenger landed in Newark, New Jersey, even though his ticket said "New York", LaGuardia pushed New Yorkers to support the construction of an airport in New York City itself. The city government leased North Beach Airport in 1934.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>La Guardia&#39;s administration presented plans for a renovation of North Beach Airport (now LaGuardia Airport) in August 1937. The plans included a terminal for seaplanes along Bowery Bay, on the western side of the airport, as well as a terminal for land planes along Flushing Bay, on the eastern side. The seaplane terminal, to be known as the Marine Air Terminal, was to contain four hangars, an administrative building, and a machine shop. The administrative building was to be a circular brick-and-steel edifice measuring 38 ft tall and about 136 ft across. A baggage check, customs and immigration offices, an air traffic control tower, and various other offices would be centered around a main waiting room, and there would be access ramps for seaplane passengers. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) would provide federal funding for the project.</p><br>
<p>USA president Franklin D. Roosevelt approved plans for the airport on September 3, 1937, The airport was originally projected to cost $15 million and be completed in time for the opening of the 1939 New York World&#39;s Fair. By July 1938, the WPA employed 7,800 workers on the project, and workers were expanding the airport site through land reclamation. The number of workers had increased to 11,500 by that November, and the cost had increased to $29 million. Prior to the opening of the seaplane terminal, in early 1939, The New York Times reported that flying boats from England, France, Germany, and the United States would be using the terminal. The terminal had been planned with two seaplane hangars, but only one hangar was built at the time; that hangar was nearly complete by April 1939.</p><br>
<p>The expanded North Beach Airport opened on October 15, 1939, and was officially renamed the New York Municipal Airport–LaGuardia Field later that year. Covering 558 acre with nearly 4 mi of runways, the airport cost $40 million, making it the largest and most expensive in the world at that time. The land-plane section of the airport opened for commercial flights on December 2, 1939, but the completion of the marine terminal was delayed until March 1940. This was in part because construction in Bowery Bay had prevented seaplanes from landing there. Seaplanes instead traveled to bases in Port Washington, New York, and in Baltimore, Maryland.</p><br>
<h3>Pan Am use</h3><br>
<p>At a hearing before the Civil Aeronautics Board in April 1939, Pan American Airways indicated that it planned to use North Beach Airport as the main USA terminal for the transatlantic flights of its Boeing 314 Clippers. Under this plan, Clippers would fly to Baltimore if there was bad weather in New York City. Pan Am leased the Marine Air Terminal from the New York City government the following month. Pan Am also allowed foreign airlines to use the terminal, including Imperial Airways, Air France, and KLM.</p><br>
<h4>Opening and early years</h4><br>
<p>In July 1940, American Export Airlines and city officials began discussing the possibility of constructing a second seaplane hangar next to the Marine Air Terminal. American Export wanted to operate a transatlantic passenger route from LaGuardia Airport, but Pan Am did not have any more space in its existing hangar. The New York City Planning Commission approved the proposed hangar in April 1941, allocating $389,000 to the project. LaGuardia attended a groundbreaking ceremony for the second hangar on August 4, 1941, and work on the hangar began that December. James Brooks completed his Flight mural inside the main terminal building in September 1942. The following year, in April 1943, an expansion to the original Pan Am hangar was completed. By then, the Marine Air Terminal had more than one transatlantic trip per day. American Exports new hangar opened in July 1943, and the terminals observation deck reopened in June 1945.</p><br>
<p>A New York Herald Tribune article in 1942 noted that Clipper flights came from as far as "Capetown, Lisbon, New Zealand, the Orient, Alaska and other remote places". During the Second World War, many soldiers would fly to Europe and Africa from the terminal, and political figures such as USA first lady Eleanor Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill also flew from the terminal. Even so, the Marine Air Terminal lasted as a seaplane terminal for less than a decade. When the terminal opened, seaplanes were generally more technologically advanced than traditional land planes; the earliest four-engine aircraft, capable of flying long distances, had been seaplanes. However, they were also more prone to disruption, particularly during the winter months and in poor tidal conditions, when they could not operate. Land planes were not affected by these issues, and land-plane technology was also improving quickly. With the outbreak of World War II, new four-engine land planes were being developed, making these seaplanes obsolete.</p><br>
<h4>Use as international terminal</h4><br>
<p>By the mid-1940s, the small capacity of LaGuardia Airport could not handle the increasing demand for international flights. Despite the obsolescence of seaplanes, LaGuardia Airport was the only major airport in the USA which offered regular flights to Europe. Although the terminal had begun to serve land planes, it could only fit one plane at a time, and passengers frequently had to wait three to four hours before passing through customs. The Daily Boston Globe wrote that the rotunda often saw as much traffic as a subway station during rush hours, with up to ten overseas flights trying to land nearly simultaneously at the busiest times. The Marine Air Terminal served 14 airlines; the overcrowded conditions had prompted one airline owner to purchase an old ferryboat and moor it next to the Marine Air Terminal.</p><br>
<p>The improvements included the addition of a 1,000 ft covered walkway, three gates for arriving passengers, and two gates for departing passengers. After the terminal reopened on November 7, 1946, it was renamed the International Air Terminal, serving all of LaGuardias transatlantic flights. Meanwhile, Idlewild (now JFK) Airport was being built in southern Queens to accommodate international and transcontinental flights. The Port of New York Authority took over operation of LaGuardia and Idlewild airports in June 1947. That September, Port Authority officials suggested extending one of LaGuardias runways by infilling an unused plot of land next to the International Air Terminal. The terminal served 314,000 passengers a year in 1948, many more than it had been built to accommodate.</p><br>
<p>Air traffic at the terminal started to decline after Idlewild opened in 1948. The terminal was renamed the Overseas Terminal in August 1949 because passengers frequently confused it with Idlewild, which was formally known as New York International Airport. In the years after Idlewild opened, most transatlantic flights at the Overseas Terminal were moved over to Idlewild. The terminal had become empty most of the time, and Pan Am, American Overseas Airlines, and Trans World Airlines were the only airlines still operating international flights from the terminal. and the last transatlantic flight from the Overseas Terminal departed on April 28, 1951. Afterward, only flights to Bermuda continued to operate out of Marine Air Terminal. Brooks did not learn that the mural had been painted over until after the fact.</p><br>
<h3>1950s to 1970s</h3><br>
<p>According to The Wall Street Journal, the terminal was "quickly forgotten" after Clipper service stopped. USA presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy sometimes used the terminal when they landed at LaGuardia Airport. The terminal also contained the offices of flight simulation company FlightSafety, founded in 1951 by Albert Lee Ueltschi. The Port Authority announced its plans to renovate most of LaGuardia Airport in 1957, but Marine Air Terminal was excluded from these plans.</p><br>
<p>The terminal reopened for commercial aviation on June 27, 1957, when Northeast Airlines leased the terminal for its shuttle services between New York and Boston. The swap took place because Gate 11 at the domestic terminal was too small for the four-engine DC-6Bs that were used on the Florida flights.</p><br>
<p>In 1964, American Hydrofoils agreed to operate a shuttle hydrofoil service from the Marine Air Terminal to East 25th Street and Pier 11/Wall Street in Manhattan. After the Federal Aviation Administration banned non-scheduled airlines from operating regular flights and selling tickets in the 1960s, the Marine Air Terminal sat nearly empty for several years. The Butler Aviation Company, which managed LaGuardias general aviation operations, had divided the walkway adjoining the terminal into a waiting room and an office, and there was a pilots lounge next to the walkway. The terminal was then known as Butler Marine Air Terminal. The main building&#39;s rotunda was repainted in the 1960s and was again supposed to be repainted in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Aviation historian Geoffrey Arend advocated for the restoration of the Flight mural in the main building&#39;s rotunda That February, philanthropist Laurance Rockefeller and magazine publisher DeWitt Wallace agreed to partially fund the restoration of the Flight mural, During that time, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered protecting the terminal as an official New York City landmark Arend supported the designation, but the Port Authority expressed opposition because such a designation would severely restrict what the agency could do with the terminal.</p><br>
<h3>Shuttle use</h3><br>
<h4>Pan Am Shuttle</h4><br>
<p>Pan Am announced its Pan Am Shuttle service from New York to Boston and Washington in 1986, having purchased the rights to New York Air&#39;s shuttle service. The airline initially planned to operate from two gates at the main terminal, but these gates were too small to fit the Boeing 727 and Airbus A300 fleet on the route, so Pan Am built new gates at the Marine Air Terminal. Local politicians and preservationists were irate at the changes. Rocco Manniello, who operated a small Italian restaurant at the rear of the main building, renovated his restaurant during this time.</p><br>
<p>Pan Am Shuttle flights started operating from the Marine Air Terminal on October 1, 1986. The terminal was relatively remote, being about 0.25 mi from the other buildings at LaGuardia Airport. and taxi drivers were hesitant to pick up passengers at the terminal, prompting Pan Am to sponsor giveaways for taxi drivers who drove there. Nonetheless, by 1990, Pan Am sought to sell the shuttle.</p><br>
<h4>Delta Shuttle</h4><br>
<p>Delta Air Lines acquired the Pan Am Shuttle from Pan Am in 1991 and started operating the Delta Shuttle from the Marine Air Terminal using Boeing 727-200s. Delta also inherited the ferry route to Manhattan, which was unprofitable despite receiving large subsidies from Delta. By 1995, the Port Authority was considering restoring the facade and interior of the terminal&#39;s main building. Architectural firm Beyer Blinder Belle was hired to restore the terminal building to its original design, including light fixtures, canopies, and signage, at a cost of $600,000. The Port Authority unsuccessfully attempted to revive the ferry service in subsequent years.</p><br>
<p>Delta started renovating the terminal in early 1998 at a cost of $7.5 million. The Marine Air Terminal formally reopened in November 1999 with a new business center and concession stands. At the time, 80 percent of passengers at the terminal were business travelers, As part of the project, all of the tiles in the main buildings frieze were removed for restoration. LaGuardias general manager at the time called it the "crown jewel of the airport". The Port Authority voted to install vehicular bollards in front of the terminal in 2007 due to security concerns following the September 11 attacks.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, it was announced as part of a slot-swap transaction that Delta Air Lines would relocate to LaGuardias Central Terminal, while US Airways would start operating its US Airways Shuttle out of the Marine Air Terminal. The swap would have allowed Delta to operate hourly flights between LaGuardia and OHare International Airport. The proposed swap between US Airways and Delta never took place. Delta Shuttle continued to operate from the Marine Air Terminal until December 8, 2017. Meanwhile, in 2010, the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission introduced a pilot program that allowed Delta Shuttle passengers to share a taxicab between the Marine Air Terminal and Manhattan, but this program was unpopular.</p><br>
<h4>LaGuardia redevelopment</h4><br>
<p>In 2015, New York governor Andrew Cuomo and vice president Joe Biden announced a $4 billion plan to rebuild most of LaGuardia&#39;s terminals as one contiguous building. The Marine Air Terminal was preserved as part of the plan because it was an official landmark. On December 9, 2017, Alaska Airlines ended all service from LaGuardia Airport on October 27, 2018. JetBlue used the Marine Air Terminal for flights to Boston, Orlando, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach. The airline renovated the terminal as part of a project completed in early 2019.</p><br>
<p>On April 28, 2021, Spirit Airlines started service from the Marine Air Terminal for its flights to Fort Lauderdale, although the airlines other destinations were still located in Terminal C. Spirit moved its remaining LaGuardia services to the Marine Air Terminal the following March. JetBlue moved all operations to Terminal B on July 9, 2022, after having previously split its operations between Terminal B and the Marine Air Terminal. In mid-2023, JetBlue announced that, if its merger with Spirit was permitted to go through, it would sell Spirits six gates and 22 landing slots at the Marine Air Terminal to Frontier Group Holdings during 2024. The JetBlue–Spirit merger did not go through. Frontier Airlines relocated to Terminal B in April 2024, leaving Spirit as the only airline at the Marine Air Terminal.</p><br>
<h2>Main building</h2><br>
<p>The Marine Air Terminal, also known as Terminal A, is at the western end of LaGuardia Airport in Queens, New York City, along the southern shore of Bowery Bay. The terminal was designed in the Art Deco style by William Delano of the firm Delano & Aldrich. It is LaGuardia Airport&#39;s only remaining structure from the 1940s; the other buildings from that era had also been designed in the Art Deco style.</p><br>
<p>Landside access to the main terminal building is via Marine Terminal Road, which ends at a turnaround directly in front of the building. This turnaround is served by the buses, as well as the LaGuardia Airport shuttle bus.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The terminal&#39;s main building is a circular two-story structure flanked by a pair of one-story wings facing northwest and northeast toward Bowery Bay. The main building is approached by a triple-height rectangular pavilion facing south. The entrance pavilion and the rear wings were all intended as access points into the central core, which housed the primary functions of the terminal. The brick facade was originally painted buff with black details but, by the 1980s, had been repainted beige with brown details.</p><br>
<p>The circular core measures 144 ft across. In addition, the second story is topped by a terracotta frieze, which depicts yellow flying fish against a background of light and dark blue waves. The frieze contains 2,200 individual tiles. A similar motif was also used on several of Delano and Aldrich&#39;s other structures. There is an attic with a facade of stainless steel panels, as well as a control tower at the rear of the attic.</p><br>
<p>The three-story rectangular entrance pavilion is flanked by two shorter sections. The entrance, at the center of this pavilion, consists of a doorway with four stainless steel doors, which are topped by transom panels depicting a pair of winged globes. A curving stainless-steel canopy extends in front of these doors, and a double-height window is placed above the canopy. The double-height window and the doorway are the same width and are both surrounded by a band of dark bricks. Steel mullions divide the window into a grid measuring four panes across and five panes high. The shorter sections of the pavilion contain small windows at ground level. The terracotta frieze around the circular core also runs atop the shorter sections of the entrance.</p><br>
<p>The rear wings measure 54 by across. A corridor, flanked by waiting rooms, extended from the northeast wing to a landing float in Bowery Bay. The modern Terminal A leads to gates A1 through A6.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The four stainless-steel doors at the main entrance pavilion lead to a foyer with four doors of identical design, topped by transom panels depicting winged globes. Past the foyer are staircases with stainless-steel railings, as well as another set of five stainless-steel doors. These lead into a two-story rotunda with a skylight at the third story. The staircase around the rotunda could be seen from outside.</p><br>
<p>The rotunda contains light-gray marble floors with a circular geometric pattern at the center of the floor. The rotunda contains wooden benches, the ends of which contain stainless-steel arms that depict propeller blades. The lower section of the wall is made of dark-green marble. This wall is divided into 14 bays, which contain ticketing offices, stores, and other functions. These bays are arranged into groups of four or five, with each group being separated by the doors to the west, east, and south.</p><br>
<p>On the second story, surrounding the rotunda, were various offices for the terminals staff, including radio technicians, communications workers, and meteorologists. In addition, there were turnstiles on the second and third stories for members of the public who wanted to observe the Clippers. The main buildings control tower contained radio equipment for monitoring seaplane landings and takeoffs in Bowery Bay.</p><br>
<h4>Mural</h4><br>
<p>Inside the rotunda hangs Flight, a mural measuring 12 ft tall and 237 ft long. It was the largest mural created as part of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration (WPA). The mural is roughly divided into two sections. The first section depicts early history of aviation, including prehistoric humans inability to fly; the Greek myth of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun and got burned; and the flight-related inventions of Leonardo da Vinci. The second section depicts the modern history of aviation, starting with the Wright brothers test flights and ending with modern transatlantic flights. The mural hangs on the upper section of the wall, just below the ceiling.</p><br>
<p>Flight was completely painted over in 1952.</p><br>
<h2>Seaplane hangar</h2><br>
<p>When LaGuardia Airport was built in the 1930s, two seaplane hangars adjacent to the main building were planned. Initially, only one hangar was built. The hangar had five sides and resembled a half-octagon from above. The north and south sides of the hangar each measured 169 ft wide; the northwest and southwest sides were each 204 ft wide; and the west side was 354 ft wide. The hangar had four openings through which seaplanes and flying boats could enter. These openings measured 45 ft high. In addition, the roof of the hangar measured 75 ft high and was held up by trusses extending from a central pillar. A tunnel connected the hangar to the main building.</p><br>
<p>Next to the hangar were ramps with floodlights, as well as taxiways illuminated by lamps. There were also 18 large gasoline tanks next to the hangar, each with a capacity of 20,000 gal. Whenever the Clippers needed maintenance, they could be pulled out of the water, moved onto a set of tracks, and towed to the hangar. The tracks were made of concrete and could accommodate aircraft weighing up to 250 ST, or about five times as heavy as an empty Boeing 314.</p><br>
<p>After the Clippers stopped serving the Marine Air Terminal, the hangar was used to store maintenance vehicles, as well as for LaGuardia Airports executive offices. The roof of the hangar contains Spirit of Flight, a sculpture of a bird whose wingspan measures 17 ft wide. The sculpture was formerly placed atop the roof of LaGuardias Domestic Terminal, which was razed in 1963.</p><br>
<p>Great Camp Sagamore is one of several historic Great Camps located in the Adirondack Mountains of northern New York State.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Great Camp Sagamore was constructed by William West Durant on Sagamore Lake between 1895 and 1897. Prior to Sagamore, William Durant had constructed Camp Pine Knot (purchased by Collis P. Huntington and now the Huntington Memorial Outdoor Education Center ) on nearby Raquette Lake and Camp Uncas (once owned by J. P. Morgan) on Lake Mohegan. All three camps are still in use today.</p><br>
<p>The camp is arranged in two complexes a half-mile apart, the Upper, or workers complex, and the Lower, or guest complex. The guests would not have frequented the workers complex, as the buildings at the Upper complex are much more utilitarian than those in the Guest complex, and without the embellishment of the buildings designed for entertaining. Sagamore served as a sylvan setting in which the richest families in America could relax, party, and get a feeling of returning to nature. All of this, however, was accomplished without leaving the comforts of civilization behind.</p><br>
<p>In 1901 Durant was forced to sell Sagamore because a lawsuit by his sister over his mismanagement of their mother&#39;s estate had pushed him to the edge of bankruptcy. It was purchased by Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt, who expanded and improved the property to include flush toilets, a sewer system and hot and cold running water. He later added a hydroelectric plant and an outdoor bowling alley with an ingenious system for retrieving the balls. Other amenities included a tennis court, a croquet lawn, a 100,000 gallon reservoir, and a working farm. Vanderbilt died in 1915, a victim of the Lusitania sinking, leaving Sagamore to his widow Margaret Emerson, an avid sportswoman who continued to occupy the camp seasonally for many years.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Emerson transferred the property to Syracuse University, which operated a conference center at the site until the State of New York offered to buy it. Acquisition by the State as part of the Forest Preserve would have required demolition of the historic buildings, because of the "Forever Wild" provision of the New York State Constitution. To avert this, the Preservation League of New York State arranged with the State to take title, transferring the property with deed restrictions to a not-for-profit institution that would provide suitable occupancy. Great Camp Sagamore has continued to function as an education institution dedicated to the preservation of the National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>A portion of Sagamore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. A boundary increase for additional area was included in a multiple property submission for listing in 1986. The camp was designated as a National Historic Landmark on 16 May 2000.</p><br>
<p>The historic camp is now run by Sagamore Institute of the Adirondacks, Inc. and is open to the public by guided tour, as well as offering accommodations and educational programming May through October.</p><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks is an area of low mountains and historic site in El Paso County, Texas, in the United States. It is located in a high-altitude desert basin between the Franklin Mountains to the west and the Hueco Mountains to the east. Hueco is a Spanish word meaning hollows and refers to the many water-holding depressions in the boulders and rock faces throughout the region. Due to the unique concentration of historic artifacts, plants and wildlife, the site is under protection of Texas law; it is a crime to remove, alter, or destroy them.</p><br>
<p>The historic site is located approximately 32 miles (51 km) northeast of central El Paso, Texas, accessible via El Paso&#39;s Montana Avenue (USA Route 62/USA Route 180), by turning at RM 2775. The park consists of three syenite (a weak form of granite) mountains; it is 860 acre in area and is popular for recreation such as birdwatching and bouldering. It is culturally and spiritually significant to many Native Americans. This significance is partially manifested in the pictographs (rock paintings) that can be found throughout the region, many of which are thousands of years old.</p><br>
<h2>Designation</h2><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks State Park & Historic Site was obtained from the county by special deed on June 12, 1969, and by purchase of additional land on August 10, 1970. This site was opened to the public in May 1970. This park is named for the large natural rock basins or "huecos" that have furnished a supply of trapped rainwater to dwellers and travelers in this arid region of west Texas for millennia.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The park has gone through considerable changes during private and public ownership. The inscribed names of Texas Rangers and US Cavalrymen, as well as Native American artifacts and paintings, attest to its historic nature.</p><br>
<p>This site had originally attracted people due to its critical resource needed to survive life in the desert-water. The huge rocks and boulders have cracks and are pocketed with holes-huecos that trap and hold rainwater for months at a time. Passing people found this out and had made it known for future travelers by encrypting the walls with pictures and symbols on the rocks.</p><br>
<h3>Early inhabitants</h3><br>
<p>Human habitation of the area dates back 10,000 years with the arrival of the Desert Archaic Culture. These people would have eaten mesquite beans, banana yucca and cactus fruits in Hueco Tanks. The region was inhabited by various peoples, from the Paleo-Indians who used Folsom points to hunt the Megafauna of North America, to the people of the Jornada Mogollon (pronounced mo-goi-YONE). This site was once a Jornada Mogollon village, according to an archaeological dig of the ground between North Mountain and West Mountain. By about 700 years ago, the population of the village could no longer be sustained by the small agricultural area surrounding Hueco Tanks. At this point, a population shift occurred and settlements were formed on the nearby playas to the south, west, and northwest. There, they flourished until about 1450 A.D. when the area suffered from a series of severe droughts. Although it took time, by about 1600 A.D. the region was inhabited by the Apache people, who moved in from Canada (see the Athabascans).</p><br>
<p>Agriculture was introduced in the area sometime around 1000 A.D. and along with it, the development of the Jornada Mogollon Culture.</p><br>
<p>Later the area was occupied by Mescalero and Lipan Apaches and Jumano people. Also using the area were Comanche, Kiowa and Tiguas. Spanish and Mexican travelers were rare visitors to the area. The Kiowa called the area the Tso-doi-gyata-de-dee, meaning "rock cave where they were surrounded." In 1837, the Kiowa signed a treaty with the United States, however, shortly after Mexican soldiers forced them into a six-day siege in Hueco Tanks, during which most of them died. The earliest known modern graffiti dates back to the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>The area was visited by United States Boundary Commissioner, John R. Bartlett, in 1852 who recorded some of the pictographs. Silverio Escontrías bought the land from Armendariz in 1898 and the family used it as a ranch and tourist attraction until 1956. The early El Paso Archaeological Society (EPAS) began to campaign for the land to be turned into a park and in 1935, the National Park Service offered to buy the land from the Escontrías family, but they refused. Fort Bliss leased land from the Escontrías family for training purposes in the 1940s and 50s. The ranch went on the real estate market in 1956 and during this time, members of archaeological and historical societies raised awareness of the areas significance. El Paso County took over the land in the mid-1960s.In 1968, it was discussed whether or not the park should be turned over to the Tiguas. In 1969, the El Paso County commissioners decided to deed the park to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission. It was made a Texas State Park in 1970. The parks information center was made from the old Escontrías ranch house. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. Archaeological excavations conducted by George Kegley took place in the area between 1972 and 1973. The park was named the Hueco Tanks State Historic Site in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>Pictographs</h2><br>
<p>The first paintings made at Hueco Tanks were done by members of the Desert Archaic Culture, and depicted abstract designs. These were created between 6000 and 3000 B.C. Between 3000 BC and 450 A.D., pictures of animals and humans were drawn on the rocks.</p><br>
<p>Most of the pictographs at Hueco Tanks are of Jornada Mogollon origin. The drawings may have been used in praying for rain. The Jornada&#39;s religion was influenced by Mesoamerican religions. Many of the Hueco Tanks drawings depicted Tlaloc, a rain god and Quetzalcoatl.</p><br>
<p>Modern graffiti by Anglo people started appearing when someone painted "1849" over some of the original pictographs.</p><br>
<p>The first scientific overview of the rock paintings at Hueco Tanks happened in the summer of 1939 with Forrest and Lula Kirkland recording the art. Most of the colors used in the paintings came from minerals in the area. The paintings themselves became bound to the rock through the aging process.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the El Paso Archaeological Society (EPAS) and the Anthropology Club of the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) systematically documented the drawings, their current conditions and sometimes relocated and inspected the rock art. The project discovered 300 previously unrecorded pictographs. The findings of their work was published in A Rock Art Inventory at Hueco Tanks State Park (1974). In 1988, park ranger Dave Parker and archeologist Ron Ralph plotted the location of all known pictographs. A digital database of the art and its GPS coordinates was started in 1999 with Robert Mark and Evelyn Billo.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The syenite pluton was formed 34-38 million years ago, as part of a larger range, the Hueco Mountains, which range in age to over 320 million years ago, when this area was covered by an inland sea. The pluton was eventually exposed through weathering to form the rock formations visible today, which jut from the desert floor. The tanks were once capable of containing a year&#39;s supply of water.</p><br>
<p>The syenite rock formation is covered with desert patina (visible in the image below), the result of thousands of years of weathering of the rock surface by sun, sand, and water; the site is culturally and spiritually significant to many Native Americans, such as the Mescalero Apache, the Kiowa, the Hopi, and the Pueblo people. This significance is partially manifested in the pictographs (rock paintings) that can be found throughout the region, some of which are thousands of years old. Hueco Tanks contains the single largest concentration of mask paintings by Native Americans in North America, of which hundreds exist at this site.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Freshwater shrimp and spadefoot toads survive at the site; for this and other reasons, visitors are cautioned against touching the pools of water at Hueco Tanks to avoid destroying the eggs of these animals. Other amphibians seen in the park include barred tiger salamanders. Around 30 different species of reptiles live in the area. In 2002, 222 different species of bird were documented at the site during the year. Migratory birds such as waterfowl and songbirds pass through during migration seasons. Several birds such as the prairie falcon, burrowing owl, white throated swift, black-chinned hummingbird, ash throated flycatcher, Crissal thrasher, blue grosbeak, Scott&#39;s oriole and lesser goldfinch all likely breed in the area. The park is home today to mule deer, black bears, bobcats, gray fox, coyotes, badgers, ringtails, skunks, raccoons, mountain lions, black-tailed jackrabbits, desert cottontail, eastern cottontail, six species of bats and twenty species of rodents.</p><br>
<h2>Plants</h2><br>
<p>Around the syenite outcrops, the park is surrounded by Chihuahuan Desert scrub with creosote bush as the dominant species. The site contains enough water to support live oaks and junipers, species which survive from the last ice age. Other trees found in the area include netleaf hackberry, Texas mulberry, Mexican buckeye, catclaw acacia, and Arizona white oak. Hueco Tanks has the only population in the United States of the plant Colubrina stricta.</p><br>
<h2>Bouldering</h2><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks is widely regarded as one of the best areas in the world for bouldering, that is, rock climbing low enough to attempt without ropes for protection. It is unique for its rock type, the concentration and the quality of the climbing. In any given climbing season, which generally lasts from October through March, it is common for climbers from across Europe, Asia, and Australia to visit the park. In February an outdoor bouldering competition known as the Hueco Rock Rodeo is held. The event is a world-class outdoor competition that attracts many professional climbers every year.</p><br>
<p>Since the implementation of the Public Use Plan in June 2000, following a brief closure of the entire park due to the park service&#39;s inability to manage the growing crowds of international climbers, more than two-thirds of the park is restricted to tours by volunteer or commercial guides. Only North Mountain is accessible without guides, and then only for about 70 people at any given time, except on the south side at ground level, which is closed to the public. The park offers camping and showers for $12 per night (as of April 2020), or, as is most popular for climbers, the nearby Hueco Rock Ranch offers camping where climbers can relax and socialize. This is also where commercial guides can be found, and where many volunteer guides stay during the climbing season.</p><br>
<p>Prospect Bluff Historic Sites  is located in Franklin County, Florida, on the Apalachicola River, 6 mi SW of Sumatra, Florida. The site contains the ruins of two forts.</p><br>
<p>The earlier and larger one was built by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. They allowed the members of the disbanded Corps of Colonial Marines, made up largely of fugitive slaves, and Creek tribesmen to occupy it after the British evacuated Florida in 1815, deliberately leaving their munitions behind. At that point, since the British had not named it, Americans started referring to it as Negro Fort. It was destroyed in a river attack from USA forces in 1816.</p><br>
<p>Fort Gadsden was built in 1818 within the former walls of the former Negro Fort.</p><br>
<p>The site has been known by several other names at various times, including Prospect Bluff, British post, Nicholls Fort, Blounts Fort, Fort Blount, African Fort, and Fort Apalachicola. The local natives called the land Achackwheithle.</p><br>
<p>Listed in the National Register of Historic Places and named a National Historic Landmark in 1972, the Prospect Bluff Historic Sites was acquired by the Apalachicola National Forest in 1940 and is managed by the USA Forest Service. The process of memorializing the site began in 1961, when the Apalachicola National Forest issued the State of Florida a term special use permit for an area of approximately 78 acres including the site to be run as a state park. Administration of the site reverted to the federal government in the 1990s. The site contains interpretive signage, picnic area with pavilion, and rest rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Prospect Bluff</h2><br>
<p>The site of both Negro Fort and the later Fort Gadsden was Prospect Bluff, "a fine bluff overlooking the Apalachicola River," whose modest elevation of 12 ft and the swamp that almost surrounded it (description below) gave it a natural military strength. The name parallels the Spanish one, Loma de Buena Vista,</p><br>
<p>Accessible only by river then, the site was and is still remote. The river was the boundary between East Florida and West Florida during the British Florida period (1763–1783) and the second Spanish Florida period (1783–1821). By modern land route it is 198 mi from Pensacola and 271 mi from St. Augustine. The area was sparsely populated, and in the twentieth century a large portion became the Apalachicola National Forest. The river was of intense interest to the British, who saw it as an undefended entry into the United States through Georgia. It was of no interest to the Spaniards; it led nowhere they cared about. Spanish forces in Florida were limited and Spain was far less committed to Florida than it was to its other colonies, most of them much more productive. Spains inability to police its borders or return fugitive slaves was central to Floridas transfer to the United States in 1821.</p><br>
<p>Control of Prospect Bluff meant control of the river, which had served as a transportation artery for centuries. More recently, it had enabled raiding parties to go upriver into Georgia and the Mississippi Territory via the Chattahoochee and especially the Flint River. The attacks were made on plantations, which had few if any defenses. These parties, besides coming back with material goods, saw to it that the slaves of the raided plantations could get free. This was a great economic blow to the slave owners (slaves were expensive), and an ideological affront as well, leaving them insecure and angry.</p><br>
<p>Prospect Bluff was valuable militarily not only because of the elevation its name suggests, but because it was at a "strategic location", a bend in the river, giving an important sight advantage over any boat.</p><br>
<h2>Before 1814</h2><br>
<p>The Florida panhandle was mostly wilderness before 1814. Its population at the time is unknown, except for isolated reports. As in the rest of Florida, there were many Native American refugees from the United States, who merged into a new ethnicity, Seminoles. It provided excellent cover for escaped slaves, who, since they shared a common enemy, got along with the Seminoles fairly well; "over time, a bond developed between escaped Africans and the Seminoles that only increased with time and white pressure for their return". Some became black Seminoles. There was "reciprocal respect and affection&quot the former slaves, who knew English, served as interpreters. This predecessor of the Underground Railroad ran south. The biggest issue about the area discussed by whites was how to get escaped slaves back, or get compensation for them, and prevent or reduce future escapes. The return of Native Americans was unwanted, and they were soon forcibly removed from Florida as well.</p><br>
<p>As was customary in pre-railroad times, settlement took place first along rivers. The name Apalachicola River derives its name from Apalachicola Province on what is now the Chattahoochee River (the Spanish regarded what is now the Chattahoochee as part of the Apalachicola River). Settlement at Prospect Bluff by maroons (escaped slaves and their descendants), Seminoles, and a few Europeans is documented at the end of the eighteenth century.</p><br>
<p>In January 1783 a conference was held in St. Augustine between the representatives of the British Crown—Governor Patrick Tonyn, Brigadier General Archibald McArthur, and Thomas Brown, the superintendent of Indian affairs—and the head men and principal warriors of the towns of the Upper and the Lower Creeks, who complained of the long distance they must travel to the stores from which they obtained their supplies. The Indians offered protection to merchants who would move their stores to locations closer to their territory, and pointed out the Apalachicola River as a suitable place for a trading house. The Creeks said it was not only more convenient for themselves, but also much nearer to the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee Indians, and requested that the house of Panton, Leslie & Company, who had been supplying them with goods, should be solicited to settle there for that purpose.</p><br>
<p>William Panton was present at the conference, and agreed with the Indians to establish a store at such a place as he or his co-partners might find suitable between the forks of Flint river and the mouth of the Apalachicola River, provided that letters of license were issued to him and his partners. The agreement was confirmed by the Crown, and the traders were granted the necessary license. Their store opened in 1784, by which time Spain had regained possession of Florida, at Fort San Marcos de Apalache (modern St. Marks, Florida). This store was attacked and looted by the adventurer William Augustus Bowles in 1792 and again in 1800, at which point it ceased operations.</p><br>
<p>A trading post run by John Forbes and Company, successors to Panton, Leslie & Company, was set up in 1804 at the more defensible Prospect Bluff at the request of "Indians" ("Mickosuckees" is the only ethnicity mentioned). It was "manned by Edmund Doyle with some assistance from William Hambly, an Indian trader with years of experience in the area." Doyle and Hambly "each owned plantations higher up the river, at Spanish Bluff on the west bank and near present-day Bristol on the east bank."</p><br>
<p>The site of the trading post was inside the walls of the Fort, built around it; this explains why the precise site has never been identified. It included a building for storing hides (what the Native Americans had to trade), quarters for negro slaves, and a cow pen for several hundred cattle that were raised nearby. During the War of 1812, British troops ransacked the store and freed the slaves.</p><br>
<p>Figures on the number of maroons who settled in the surrounding area range from 300 to 1,000.</p><br>
<p>The blacks developed plantations extending up to 50 miles along the river. A report from 1812 mentions over 36 cleared acres and 1,200 cattle, and they lived in "large and well-built cabins". Their crops were peas, beans, corn, and rice.</p><br>
<h2>British Post (1814–15)</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the fort began in May 1814, when the British seized the trading post of John Forbes and Company.</p><br>
<p>The British launched an invasion of Pensacola during the War of 1812 and occupied it until General Andrew Jackson took the town on November 7, 1814. The British forces, over 100 officers and men led by a Brevet Captain of the Royal Marines, George Woodbine, made camp at the only community between Pensacola and St. Marks: the trading post of John Forbes and Company, surrounded by negro plantations.</p><br>
<p>It was located at Prospect Bluff. Woodbine began to train local Native Americans as well as escaped slaves. Nicolls recruited the ex-slaves into the new (black) Corps of Colonial Marines. They were well-armed, well-equipped, and underwent drills; many had been in training for months. He also assembled and trained more than five hundred Creek and Seminole Indians by February 1815, but they came from a different culture, did not like being trained, and did not have the incentive of being protected from American re-enslavement. Nicolls found the ex-slaves superior as soldiers, reporting that his black recruits had enlisted "with the strictest good faith and conduct, so much so, that out of 1,500 of them I never had occasion to punish one of them". He added that in contrast with British soldiers, "they would not get drunk".</p><br>
<p>They were preparing to attack Georgia when news arrived of the end of the war. The British paid off the Colonial Marines (at the same rate as the white Marines) and withdrew from Florida. On May 16, 1815, the British evacuated the last of the garrison there.</p><br>
<p>Blacks and Native Americans under Nicolls direction built two forts on the Apalachicola River. The larger and more important one was to be on the border of Georgia, at the juncture of the Flint and the Chattahoochee Rivers, in modern Chattahoochee, Florida, and was to serve as the base for a USA invasion. Time only permitted the construction of a small wooden structure, which Nicolls called Fort Apalachicola, but is today referred to as Nicolls Outpost.</p><br>
<p>The larger one, which actually was built and was intended to be a supply depot for Nicolls Outpost, did not have a name; it was referred to simply as the British Post. It was 15 mi above the river mouth and 60 mi south of Nicolls Outpost and the border of Georgia. The construction of the larger fort was described by Brigadier General Edmund P. Gaines in a letter of May 14, 1816 to Andrew Jackson, who had charged him with destroying the Fort:The ramparts and parapets built of hewn timber filled in with earth, mounting 9 to 12 pieces of Cannon, several of which are very large, with some mortars and Howitzers. It has a deep ditch intended to be filled with water, but was dry when seen by my informants, two or three months ago. The work is nearly square and extends over near two acres of ground, has Comfortable barracks, and large stone houses inside. It is rendered inaccessible by land, except a narrow pass up near the margin of the river, by reason of an impenetrable swamp in the rear and extending to the river above. The fort was very well provided with ordnance:It included 4 twenty-four-pound cannons, 4 six-pound cannons, beside a field piece and a howitzer. In addition there were found 2,500 stands of muskets with accoutrements, 500 carbines and 500 swords... 300 quarter-casks of rifle powder and 162 barrels of cannon powder, besides other stores and clothing.</p><br>
<p>The area enclosed by the fort was 7 acres; on the eastern corners (those most vulnerable to attack) were bastions with walls 15 feet high and 18 feet thick.</p><br>
<p>The magazine area of the fort was located about 500 feet from the river bank, and consisted of an octagonal blockhouse holding the principal magazine. This was surrounded by an extensive star-shaped enclosure covering about 16 acres with bastions on the eastern corners. The ravelin along the river with cannon was 15 feet high and 18 feet thick.</p><br>
<p>Gaines estimated that 900 Native American warriors and 450 armed blacks inhabited the fort.</p><br>
<p>A miniature replica of the later Fort Gadsden was constructed in the 1970s; a picture is in the State Archives of Florida.</p><br>
<h2>Negro Fort (1815–16)</h2><br>
<p>When the British withdrew, they deliberately left all their weapons, hoping that the locals would use them to defend themselves from USA attempts to re-enslave them, just as African and Native Americans had assisted the British during the American War of Independence. Most of the Native Americans (Seminoles and Red Stick Creeks) warriors who remained behind abandoned the fort soon afterwards.</p><br>
<p>Some remained, along with many of the trained soldiers of the disbanded Corps of Colonial Marines, which was a British Army regiment consisting of freed slaves.</p><br>
<p>Over the next year the fort became a growing colony of escaped slaves from Georgia and the Mississippi Territory, and became known as the Negro Fort.</p><br>
<p>It was the center of the largest community of free negroes in North America before the USA Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The fort, located as it was near the border, was seen by the USA as "a beacon of light to restless and rebellious slaves," "a center of hostility and above all a threat to the security of their slaves," "a direct threat to the slave-holding interests rapidly flocking to the newly opened lands in what is today Mississippi and Alabama." On April 8, 1816, General Jackson ordered General Gaines to "take care of the situation", because the Fort "ought to be blown up&quot it was only fomenting "rapine and plunder", and he should "return the stolen Negros and plunder to their rightful owners".</p><br>
<p>Having done so, on April 23 he then complained to the West Florida military governor Mauricio de Zúñiga, asking whether that fort has been built by the government of Spain — and whether the negroes, who garrison it, are considered subjects of his Catholic Majesty — and if not by the authority of Spain — by whom, under whose orders, has it been established</p><br>
<p>He informed Zúñiga that:Secret practices to inveigle Negroes from the frontier citizens of Georgia as well as from the Cherokee and Creek nations of Indians are still continued by this Banditti and the Hostile Creeks. This is a state of things which cannot fail to produce much injury to the neighboring settlements and incite Irritations which may ultimately endanger the peace of the nation and interrupt that good understanding that so happily exists between our governments.</p><br>
<p>He insisted on the "return to our citizens and the friendly Indians inhabiting our Territory those Negroes now in the said fort and which have been stolen and enticed from them." This conduct "will not be tolerated by our government and if not put down by the Spanish Authority will compel us in self Defence to destroy them."</p><br>
<p>After Zúñiga&#39;s reply of May 26, 1816, informing Jackson that he could not act "unless I receive the</p><br>
<p>Orders of my Captain General and the necessary Supplies", Jackson proceeded with his plans to destroy the Fort.</p><br>
<p>The first step was the construction of Fort Scott, located at a key military point upriver, the west bank of the Flint River where it empties into the Apalachicola, in the southwestern corner of Georgia. Boats supplying Fort Scott had to go up the Apalachicola River and past the Negro Fort. The supply boats were escorted by two gunboats. "Gaines obviously wanted to provoke an attack to justify the strongholds destruction." When shots were fired from the Fort at passing boats, this was all the excuse for action Gaines needed. On July 27, 1816, a "hot shot" (a cannonball heated to a red glow in the gunboats galley) from the American forces entered the opening to the fort&#39;s powder magazine, igniting an explosion that was heard more than 100 miles (160 km) away in Pensacola, and destroyed the fort, killing all but 30 of 300 occupants. It has been called "the single deadliest cannon shot in American history."</p><br>
<p>It was also "the largest battle in history between fugitive slaves and USA forces seeking to reenslave them."</p><br>
<p>Spain protested the violation of its soil, but according to historian John K. Mahon, it "lacked the power to do more."</p><br>
<p>A former commemorative plaque at the scene reads as follows:</p><br>
<p>It is hard to imagine the horrible scene that greeted the first Americans to stand here on the morning of July 27, 1816. The remains of 230 persons killed in the magazine explosion lay scattered about. They also found an arsenal of ten cannons, 2,500 muskets and over 150 barrels of black powder. Some original timbers from the octagonal magazine were uncovered here by excavations.</p><br>
<p>The trading post of John Forbes and Company, storekeeper Edward Doyle, was reestablished following the destruction of the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Gadsden (1818–21)</h2><br>
<p>To secure the militarily significant Prospect Bluff, protect commerce on the river, prevent the recreation of a fugitive slave community—new fugitives were arriving—, and as a base for his further invasion of Florida, in 1818 General Jackson directed Lieutenant James Gadsden, of the Army Corps of Engineers, to rebuild the fort, which he did within the earthworks that had protected Negro Fort, as it was much smaller. The fort needed a new name; Jackson named it Fort Gadsden. However, an aide to General Andrew Jackson reported to his superior in August 1818 that Fort Gadsden was "a temporary work, hastily erected, and of perishable materials, without constant repair, it could not last more than four or five years." It was abandoned in 1821, the year Florida became a USA territory and there was no longer a national border to defend.</p><br>
<p>Fort Gadsden had no direct involvement in any military endeavor, either in 1818–1821 or during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h3>Colinton</h3><br>
<p>In 1820, Colin Mitchell would purchase the Forbes Lands, including Fort Gadsden. The following year he made plans to construct a city at the site, Colinton. The planned city would have had 4 squares and wharves for incoming steamboats. However, Mitchell&#39;s claim to the land would be found invalid, and Colinton was never built.</p><br>
<h2>"Milly Francis"</h2><br>
<p>A marker at the site recalls the case of Milly Francis, a Creek girl who persuaded her father, Hillis Hadjo (Francis the Prophet), not to execute an American soldier who had inadvertently come into their territory. Her father was captured and hung at Fort St. Marks in 1818. She witnessed his hanging.</p><br>
<h2>Irvington remains</h2><br>
<p>A steamboat, the Irvington, burned and sank in 1838 four miles north of the Site. The rusting boilers and some of the works thought to be from this ship were dredged from the river (when the river was being dredged for navigation) and can be seen at the Site.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War (1862–1863)</h2><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Confederate troops occupied the fort, using it to protect communications from plantations in Georgia, Florida, and Alabama with the port of Apalachicola. In July 1863, an outbreak of malaria forced its abandonment.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Gadsden given disproportionate emphasis at historic site</h2><br>
<p>"The settlement of former slaves has been marginalized in and has largely receded from both the scholarly and popular imagination for much of the last century."</p><br>
<p>The most important moment in Prospect Bluff&#39;s history is arguably the Negro Fort period (1815–1816) and this is the period of significance cited in the National Register Nomination. However, the site was initially named for Fort Gadsden, much less significant historically. The Fort Gadsden Historic Site was created in 1961, when racial divisions may have led to downplaying the battle, although other causes such as population displacement may have contributed as well.</p><br>
<p>The 2016 renaming of the site as Prospect Bluff Historic Sites does acknowledge in the name that more than Fort Gadsden existed there and uses a name that the residents of that area in the 19th century would have known it as.</p><br>
<h2>Bicentennial activities</h2><br>
<p>On May 16–20, 2016, the National Park Service held a workshop with 50 participants on using technological tools to non-destructively investigate below a site&#39;s surface.</p><br>
<p>On October 22, 2016, the United States Forest Service commemorated 200 years since the tragic events of July 1816. There was a Seminole Color Guard, "descendants of Prospect Bluff Maroon community", with keynote speaker Chairman James E. Billie of the Seminole Tribe of Florida. A video of the ceremony is available.</p><br>
<p>The Florida Humanities Council funded a program that created virtual landscapes for 1816 Prospect Bluff as well as the Maroon community of Angola on the Manatee River.</p><br>
<p>The Atlanta Cyclorama and Civil War Museum was a Civil War museum located in Atlanta, Georgia. Its most noted attraction was the Atlanta Cyclorama, a cylindrical panoramic painting of the Battle of Atlanta. As of December 2021, the Cyclorama is located at the Atlanta History Center, while the building is now Zoo Atlanta&#39;s Savanna Hall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The painting was created as a traveling attraction for Northerners; it portrayed celebrated Union officers, while the portrayals of Confederate officers were not individualized. It was purchased and moved to Atlanta in 1891 by Paul Atkinson, who attempted to recast the Battle of Atlanta as a Confederate victory, repainting a group of Confederate prisoners of war so they became defeated Union soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Paying visitors viewed the cylindrical painting from the inside, entering through an entrance in the floor. After being seated, the central cylinder rotates slowly, affording a view of the entire painting. The painting at one time was the largest oil painting in the world, and if unrolled would measure 49 ft high by 358 ft long, weighing 10,000 pounds. It held this record until 1894, when it was surpassed in size by the Racławice Panorama (15 × 114 meter, 49 ft × 374 ft) a cycloramic painting depicting the Battle of Racławice.</p><br>
<p>The Cyclorama was narrated at one time by volunteers, some of whom were veterans or widows of veterans of the Civil War. In 1960, Atlanta Mayor William B. Hartsfield accepted the donation of a recorded narration written by Junius Andrew Park Jr., in honor of his father, Junius Andrew Park Sr., who was born and raised in Atlanta. Research was done by Lurline Richardson Park, the writer&#39;s wife. The narration was musically scored by Atlanta musician Sam T. Wilhoit, and the narration was read by Hollywood actor Victor Jory, who appeared in the original motion picture Gone with the Wind. All parties donated their time and labor. In later years, a revised narration was produced and narrated by actor Shepperd Strudwick.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum displayed pictures and artifacts from the Civil War, including the Texas, a steam locomotive that pursued the captured train the General in the Great Locomotive Chase during the war. This raid was depicted in the 1927 Buster Keaton film The General and the 1956 Disney film The Great Locomotive Chase.</p><br>
<p>A movie theater inside the museum showed a short film about the Atlanta Campaign to visitors before they viewed the painting. The 14-minute film was called The Atlanta Campaign, and was directed by and narrated by James Earl Jones. It originally premiered on May 9, 1990 and had a budget of $300,000, including a 24-foot scale model of Atlanta and a cast of 5,000 reenactors. Many of the reenactors also appeared in the 1989 film, Glory.</p><br>
<p>The Cyclorama painting itself is augmented by a three-dimensional diorama in front of the painting and a narration of the events of the battle and the history of the painting. A popular story concerning the diorama involves actor Clark Gable. During the celebrations surrounding the opening of the film Gone with the Wind, the films actors visited the Atlanta Cyclorama. Gable allegedly claimed that the only way the painting could be any more magnificent was if he were in it, prompting the management to add Gables features to one of the sculptures in the diorama, that of a dying soldier.</p><br>
<h2>Relocation</h2><br>
<p>In July 2014, Atlanta city officials announced plans to relocate the Cyclorama to the Atlanta History Center in Buckhead. The possibility of a move started soon after the 2008 restoration of the only other panoramic painting in the United States, the Gettysburg Cyclorama. In 2011, a panel of city leaders and historians was appointed to investigate options for restoring and possibly relocating the painting, which was estimated to cost at least $8 million to restore. Three options were considered: relocate to the Centennial Olympic Park area, near the Georgia Aquarium and other new tourist attractions; relocate to the Atlanta History Center; or, remain in the current location. The Atlanta History Center was selected after a local couple offered $10 million towards the project, with the History Center noting in its announcement that it had already raised $32.2 million for the move. Including the $10 million endowment, ultimately a total of $35.78 million was raised.</p><br>
<p>The Cycloramas final day open to the public was June 30, 2015, after which it closed in preparation for the move. The History Center began construction in fall 2015 on a new 23,000 ft&sup2; building to house the painting, the diorama and the Texas locomotive. During the construction, restoration work was done on the painting, including the addition of areas of the painting that were removed prior to its installation in the current Grant Park facility. After the History Center building was completed, the painting and diorama were to be moved to the new facility where restoration continued, at times in view of History Center visitors. The building in Grant Park was given to Zoo Atlanta, which planned to use it as office and event space, including a new private viewing area for a proposed expansion of the zoos African elephant habitat.</p><br>
<p>The restored Cyclorama reopened in April 2019.</p><br>
<p>The South Carolina State Museum is a museum dedicated to the history of South Carolina. It has four floors of permanent and changing exhibits, a digital dome planetarium, 4D interactive theater, and an observatory . The State Museum is located along the banks of the Congaree River in downtown Columbia, South Carolina. It is the largest museum in the state, and is a Smithsonian Affiliate and part of the American Alliance of Museums. Positioned on an old shipping canal  that dates back to pre-Civil War times, the museum is widely recognized as a resource for South Carolina history and lifestyle.</p><br>
<p>The museum opened on October 29, 1988, and is housed in what it calls its largest artifact: the former Columbia Mills Building, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. When the mill opened in 1894, manufacturing cotton duck cloth (a canvas-like material), it was the first completely electric textile mill in the world. It was also the first major industrial installation for the General Electric corporation. On certain levels of the museum, the original flooring has been kept intact, distinguishable by the textile brads and rings (that carried the threads during the spinning process) that became embedded in the floor while it was still being used as a mill. The South Carolina Confederate Relic Room & Military Museum is located within the Columbia Mills Building and is the oldest museum exhibit (est. 1896) in Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The museum represents four distinct sections of South Carolina history: art, cultural history, science and technology, and natural history. Exhibits include life-size replicas of the Best Friend of Charleston- the first American-built locomotive in 1830, and the Civil War&#39;s H.L. Hunley, the first submarine to sink an enemy ship in combat.</p><br>
<p>The second floor on natural history is notable for its recreation of a 3.6-million-year-old megalodon, named Finn, suspended mid-air just around a corner, and for a life-size Columbian mammoth (which was once native to SC). The Museum&#39;s first natural history curator was Rudy Mancke, who went on to produce a national program on South Carolina Educational Television called NatureScene.</p><br>
<p>There is also the Lipscomb art gallery on the first floor, which features an iron gate made by Charlestons Philip Simmons. The Cotton Mill Exchange gift shop sells South Carolina souvenirs and books and is located on the first floor. The museum restaurant, the Crescent Café, sells sandwiches and drinks. The museum has a 1989 mural of the nearby Gervais Street Bridge by Columbias Blue Sky (artist) in a room next to the Café. It has topiary sculpted by Bishopville&#39;s Pearl Fryar in the parking lot. The Stringer Discovery Center for small children opened in 1997.</p><br>
<p>Travelling exhibitions at the State Museum have included "Spanish Explorations in the Caribbean and the US, 1492-1570" (for the 500th anniversary of Columbus&#39; discovery) in 1990, WWII and SC in 1991 (for 50 years since the Pearl Harbor attack), "Rock, Roll, and Remember: Hootie & the Blowfish and Other SC Greats" in 1997, The World of Insects in 1998, Star Trek: The Exhibition in 1999, The Magic School Bus in 1999, Inside Africa in 2004, Prehistoric Predators in 2004, Napoleon Bonaparte in 2006, Aliens: Worlds of Possibilities in 2007, Leonardo da Vinci in 2008, a 2008 exhibit on several of the movies (like The Patriot and Forrest Gump) filmed in SC ("Hollywood Comes to South Carolina"), "Football in the Palmetto State, 1889-2000" in 2008, Pirates in 2010, 150 years of the Civil War in SC in 2011, Body Worlds Vital in 2012, Titanic: the Artifact Exhibition (100 yr. anniversary) in 2012, Secrets of the Maya in 2012, King Tut in 2003 and 2013, Dinosaurs: A Bite Out of Time in 2014, Julius Caesar: Roman Military Might in 2015, "RACE: Are We So Different?" in 2016, Savage Ancient Seas in 2017, the 2017 Solar Eclipse in Columbia exhibit in the observatory, The Wizard of Oz in 2017 for Halloween, Hall of Heroes (superheroes) in 2019, 50 Years of the Apollo 11 Moon Landing (with items from SC astronaut Charles Duke) in 2019, and Sherlock Holmes: the International Exhibition in 2020 (with items from the Museum of London).</p><br>
<p>Central Square is an area in Cambridge, Massachusetts centered on the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Prospect Street and Western Avenue., formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Columbia Street, Sidney Street and Main Street, is also considered a part of the Central Square area. Harvard Square is to the northwest along Massachusetts Avenue, Inman Square is to the north along Prospect Street and Kendall Square is to the east along Main Street. The section of Central Square along Massachusetts Avenue between Clinton Street and Main Street is designated the Central Square Historic District, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Central Square was designated an official Cultural District in the state of Massachusetts by the Mass Cultural Council in October 2012. Central Square is known for its wide variety of ethnic restaurants, churches, bars, and live music and theatre venues. Richard B. Modica Way, aka "Graffiti Alley", has been described as a "hallmark of Central Square." It is gentrifying rapidly, and a number of upscale restaurants have opened in the Square. Many startups, including pharmaceutical, videogame and Internet companies, have moved research and office operations into the Square to take advantage of the proximity to MIT, Boston medical resources and relatively low costs. Some critics have claimed that the recent changes have diminished the Squares edge, as some of the older Square businesses such as Manray have closed. There is also a diverse array of houses of worship in the area, with Christ the King Presbyterian Church, First Baptist Church, Sts. Constantine & Helen Greek Orthodox Church, St. Pauls African Methodist Episcopal Church and other large historic congregations meeting near the Square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Central Square&#39;s history has been marked by several waves of immigration. The original population of the Square included people of English and Canadian ancestry. Between 1850 and 1890, the Square attracted many Irish immigrants, and in the late Nineteenth Century also became home to many others from throughout Europe. Later waves of immigration included people from the West Indies, South America and Africa.</p><br>
<p>Central Square is also the original home of actor Ben Affleck and, from 1927 to 2003, the Necco factory. The old Necco factory building in Cambridge is now used for labs by Novartis.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and transportation</h2><br>
<p>Several Cambridge neighborhoods meet at Central Square. To the east, Area 4 lies on the north side of Massachusetts Avenue (aka "Mass Ave.") and Cambridgeport on the south side between Massachusetts Avenue and the Charles River. Both of these neighborhoods were once known as The Port or Old Port region of Cambridge. The area to the west and northwest of Central Square is known as Mid-Cambridge.</p><br>
<p>Central Square is accessible from Central station on the MBTA Red Line, as well as Buses 1, 64, 70, 83, and 91.</p><br>
<p>The intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and Brookline in front of The Middle East in Central Square is named in honor of the late indie rock musician Mark Sandman, who often played there.</p><br>
<p>Central Square serves as the commercial center for the surrounding neighborhoods of Cambridgeport, Riverside, Mid Cambridge, Area 4 and MIT.</p><br>
<h2>Local government services</h2><br>
<p>Central Square is the seat of government in Cambridge. Cambridge City Hall, and the main branch of the Cambridge Post Office are located in this area. The Cambridge Police Department headquarters was formerly at 5 Western Avenue in the Central Square area; however, between November 2008 and March 2009 it completed a relocation to a new facility at 125 Sixth Street, near Kendall Square.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Ben Affleck, actor</p><br>
<p>Casey Affleck, actor</p><br>
<p>Ken Brown, filmmaker</p><br>
<p>Lisa Crafts, animator</p><br>
<p>Patrick Ewing, athlete</p><br>
<p>Vernon Grant, cartoonist</p><br>
<p>John Forbes Nash, mathematician</p><br>
<p>Margaret Hamilton, scientist and engineer</p><br>
<h2>Notable businesses</h2><br>
<p>Central Square Theater</p><br>
<p>The Middle East (nightclub)</p><br>
<p>Toscanini&#39;s</p><br>
<p>T.T. the Bear&#39;s Place</p><br>
<h2>Fiction about Central Square</h2><br>
<p>Central Square (1998), by George Packer. Graywolf Press</p><br>
<p>The Kennedy School, originally the John D. Kennedy Elementary School, is a former elementary school that has been converted to a hotel, movie theater and dining establishment in northeast Portland, Oregon. The facility is operated by the McMenamins chain. The hotel has 35 guestrooms, a brewery, four bars, and a restaurant.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The school was built in 1915. The land for the school was sold by John Daniel Kennedy to the Portland School District in 1913.</p><br>
<h2>Currently</h2><br>
<p>By the 1990s, the school had been abandoned. McMenamins, the Portland-based hotel and pub group, bought the old building and funded a full renovation. Today, the Kennedy School functions as an event space with 57 classroom-turned-guestrooms with original chalkboards included. The old cafeteria has been converted into a courtyard restaurant, and the common areas now include a bar, gift shop, movie theater, brewery, and soaking tub.</p><br>
<p>Kennedy School won in the "Best Date Bar" category of Willamette Week "Best of Portland Readers&#39; Poll 2020".</p><br>
<p>Kennecott, also known as Kennicott and Kennecott Mines, is an abandoned mining camp in the Copper River Census Area in the USA state of Alaska that was the center of activity for several copper mines. It is located beside the Kennicott Glacier, northeast of Valdez, inside Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve. The camp and mines are now a National Historic Landmark District administered by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the summer of 1900, two prospectors, "Tarantula" Jack Smith and Clarence L. Warner, a group of prospectors associated with the McClellan party, spotted "a green patch far above them in an improbable location for a grass-green meadow." The green turned out to be malachite, located with chalcocite (aka "copper glance"), and the location of the Bonanza claim. A few days later, Arthur Coe Spencer, USA Geological Survey geologist independently found chalcocite at the same location, but was too late to stake any valuable claims.</p><br>
<p>Stephen Birch, a mining engineer just out of school, was in Alaska looking for investment opportunities in minerals. He had the financial backing of the Havemeyer Family, and another investor named James Ralph, from his days in New York. Birch spent the winter of 1901-1902 acquiring the "McClellan group&#39;s interests" for the Alaska Copper Company of Birch, Havemeyer, Ralph and Schultz, later to become the Alaska Copper and Coal Company. In the summer of 1901, he visited the property and "spent months mapping and sampling." He confirmed the Bonanza mine and surrounding by deposits were, at the time, the richest known concentration of copper in the world.</p><br>
<p>By 1905, Birch had successfully defended the legal challenges to his property and he began the search for capital to develop the area. On June 28, 1906, he entered into "an amalgamation" with the Daniel Guggenheim and J.P. Morgan & Co., known as the Alaska Syndicate, eventually securing over $30 million. The capital was to be used for constructing a railway, a steamship line, and development of the mines. In Nov. 1906, the Alaska Syndicate bought a 40 percent interest in the Bonanza Mine from the Alaska Copper and Coal Company and a 46.2 percent interest in the railroad plans of John Rosene&#39;s Northwestern Commercial Company.</p><br>
<p>Political battles over the mining and subsequent railroad were fought in the office of USA President Theodore Roosevelt between conservationists and those having a financial interest in the copper.</p><br>
<p>The Alaska Syndicate traded its Wrangell Mountains Mines assets for shares in the Kennecott Copper Corporation, a "new public company" formed on April 29, 1915. A similar transaction followed with the CR&NW railway and the Alaska Steamship Company. Birch was the managing partner for the Alaska operation.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott Mines was named after the Kennicott Glacier in the valley below. The geologist Oscar Rohn named the glacier after Robert Kennicott during the 1899 US Army Abercrombie Survey. A "clerical error" resulted in the substitution of an "e" for the "i", supposedly by Stephen Birch himself.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott had five mines: Bonanza, Jumbo, Mother Lode, Erie and Glacier. Glacier, which is really an ore extension of the Bonanza, was an open-pit mine and was only mined during the summer. Bonanza and Jumbo were on Bonanza Ridge about 3 mi from Kennecott. The Mother Lode mine was located on the east side of the ridge from Kennecott. The Bonanza, Jumbo, Mother Lode and Erie mines were connected by tunnels. The Erie mine was perched on the northwest end of Bonanza Ridge overlooking Root Glacier about 3.7 mi up a glacial trail from Kennecott. Ore was hoisted to Kennecott via the trams which head-ended at Bonanza and Jumbo. From Kennecott the ore was hauled mostly in 140-pound sacks on steel flat cars to Cordova, 196 rail miles away, via the Copper River and Northwestern Railway (CRNW).</p><br>
<p>In 1911 the first shipment of ore by train transpired. Before completion, the steamship Chittyna carried ore to the Abercrombie landing by Miles Glacier. Initial ore shipments contained "72 percent copper and 18 oz. of silver per ton."</p><br>
<p>In 1916, the peak year for production, the mines produced copper ore valued at $32.4 million.</p><br>
<p>In 1925 a Kennecott geologist predicted that the end of the high-grade ore bodies was in sight. The highest grades of ore were largely depleted by the early 1930s. The Glacier Mine closed in 1929. The Mother Lode was next, closing at the end of July 1938. The final three, Erie, Jumbo and Bonanza, closed that September. The last train left Kennecott on November 10, 1938, leaving it a ghost town.</p><br>
<p>From 1909 until 1938, except when it closed temporarily in 1932, Kennecott mines "produced over 4.6 million tons of ore that contained 1.183 billion pounds of copper mainly from three ore bodies: Bonanza, Jumbo and Mother Lode."</p><br>
<p>In 1938, Ernest Gruening proposed Kennecott be preserved as a National Park. A recommendation to President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 18, 1940, for the establishment of the Kennecott National Monument went nowhere. However, December 2, 1980, saw the establishment of the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.</p><br>
<p>From 1939 until the mid-1950s, Kennecott was deserted except for a family of three who served as the watchmen until about 1952. In the late 1960s, an attempt was made to reprocess the tailings and to transport the ore in aircraft. The cost of doing so made the idea unprofitable. Around the same time, the company with land rights ordered the destruction of the town to rid them of liability for potential accidents. A few structures were destroyed, but the job was never finished and most of the town was left standing. Visitors and nearby residents have stripped many of the small items and artifacts. Some have since been returned and are held in various archives.</p><br>
<p>KCC sent a field party under the geologist Les Moon in 1955. They agreed with the 1938 conclusion, "no copper resource of a size and grade sufficient to interest KCC remained." The mill and other structures remain, however, and many are in the process of being restored.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Kennecott first reported on the 1920 USA Census as an unincorporated village. It appeared again in 1930 and 1940, and after its abandonment, it has not reported separately since. It is now within the McCarthy CDP.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Copper ore was discovered in a lode on Chief Nikolai&#39;s house at the mouth of Dan Creek in July 1899. The geological formations in the area were described and identified by a USGS geologist by the name of Oscar Rohn in 1899. This original copper find became the basis of the Nikolai Mine in 1900. Simultaneously, placer gold was discovered on the Dan and Young Creeks. The Bonanza ore body was discovered in Aug. 1900 by Warner and Smith. Almost simultaneously, another USGS geologist named Arthur Spencer, came across the ore when mapping the area with Frank Schrader. In 1901, the Dan Creek was staked by C.L. Warner and "Dan" L. Kain. Gold was found on Chititu Creek in April 1902 by Frank Kernan and Charles Koppus.</p><br>
<p>Besides placer deposits, copper is found as polymetallic replacement deposits in the fault planes, fractures and joints of the Triassic Nikolai greenstone, which consists of basaltic lava flows, and in the base of the Upper Triassic Chitistone limestone. Minerals include chalcocite, bornite and chalcopyrite, with associated malachite, azurite and cuprite. Native copper can also be found in the greenstone.</p><br>
<h2>Concentration Mill</h2><br>
<p>Copper extraction was a many step process in an attempt to be as efficient as possible. Chalcocite and covellite were sent directly to the smelting plant in Tacoma. Malachite, azurite, and other forms of copper within the limestone needed separation in the 14-story mill building before shipment. The mill was mainly built between 1909 and 1923. Ore arrived at the mill via aerial tramways, where the high-grade portion (approximately 60% copper) was crushed and placed in a chute to carry it directly to the bottom to be placed in burlap sacks. Lower-grade ore was further crushed, sized and sorted. The denser ore was separated from the less dense waste via Hancock jigs and shaker tables. The tailings left over after gravity separation were further treated via ammonia leaching, for the coarse material, or via froth flotation for the fine material. The ammonia leaching plant was built in 1915, where ammonia liquefied the copper but kept the limestone in solid form. The ammonia-copper solution was heated to drive off the ammonia, which left behind a copper oxide containing 75% copper. This was then sacked for shipment. The flotation plant was built in 1923 to process the "fines", which were less than 0.3 cm in size. These fines were mixed with water, oil, and buffering chemicals, before air was bubbled through the solution. Copper ore attached to the air bubbles, and floated to the top, where it was skimmed off, dried and sacked.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott Mines National Historic Landmark marker for the mill town.jpgKennecott Mines National Historic Landmark marker for the mill town</p><br>
<p>Kennecott Mill exterior.jpgKennecott-based tour groups now lead visitors on guided tours of the fourteen story concentration mill</p><br>
<p>Kennecott Mines National Historic Landmark mine tramway ore car.jpgKennecott Mines National Historic Landmark mine tramway ore car</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In the 1980s, Kennecott became a popular tourist destination, as people came to see the old mines and buildings. However, the town of Kennecott was never repopulated. Residents involved in the tourism industry often lived in nearby McCarthy or on private land in the surrounding area. The area was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986 and the National Park Service acquired much of the land within the Kennecott Mill Town in 1998.</p><br>
<p>Popular tourist activities while visiting Kennecott include glacier hiking, ice climbing, and touring the abandoned mill. Visitors may also hike to the abandoned Bonanza, Jumbo and Erie mines, all of which are strenuous full-day hikes, with Erie Mine being a somewhat terrifying scramble along cliffs overlooking the Stairway Icefall. Local guide services offer all of these hikes if one would like some route-finding assistance.</p><br>
<h2>Accessibility</h2><br>
<p>Kennecott is now accessible by air (McCarthy has a 3,500 foot meter gravel runway) or by driving on the Edgerton Highway to the McCarthy Road, an unimproved gravel road. The McCarthy Road ends at the Kennicott River and a footbridge is available for pedestrian traffic to McCarthy. From McCarthy, it is 4.5 mi to Kennecott, and shuttles are available.</p><br>
<p>The Copper River and Northwestern Railway  consisted of two rail lines, the Copper River line and the Northwestern line. Michael James Heney had secured the right-of-way up the Copper River in 1904. He started building the railway from Cordova, Alaska in 1906. The town of Cordova, Alaska, was actually named by Heney on March 13, 1906, based on the original name given by Salvador Fidalgo. Both these railroads were abandoned and little remains of them. A 0-4-0 locomotive, "Ole", located near Goose City on a siding of the Alaska Anthracite Railroad Company is the only equipment left. Many of the holdings of the CR&NW railroad including Ole were acquired for this railroad by Mr. Clark Davis and his partners in 1908 after a major storm destroyed the Katalla area facilities in 1907. The town of Cordova would like to move Ole to a memorial site in Cordova to celebrate its role in these railroads. Ole was declared eligible for the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<p>In 1905 Myron K. Rodgers received a four-year contract to assist the Guggenheim family with their interests in Alaska. This work consisted of establishing coal claims in the Bering River coal field and building a railroad (Northwestern) to serve them. Myron Rodgers employed his brother Wesley P. Rodgers to carry out the surveys in 1906 and to build the railroad in 1907. The railroad started at Palm Point and extended to the northeast past the town of Katalla towards the coal fields. At Palm Point a loading pier was built into the bay and a branch line for the Copper River railroad was extended west to connect to it. The 1907 winter storm destroyed all of these facilities, including the engine house and support base.</p><br>
<p>By Oct. 1906, Heney had retired and decided to sell his Copper River right-of-way to the Alaska Syndicate that consisted of M. Guggenheim & Sons and J.P. Morgan & Co. However, he returned to work for Daniel Guggenheim on the Copper River railway in 1907 after the destruction of the winter storm. Guggenheim had decided Cordova was a better starting point.</p><br>
<p>The Alaska Syndicate included investment by J.P. Morgan. He had earlier bought John Rosene&#39;s Northwestern Commercial Company, an empire of mercantile companies, shipping interests, and railroad. The syndicate started construction from Cordova, the Bonanza mine site at Kennecott, and at a point midway where the Nizina River merged with the Copper River. Challenges included bridging the Kuskulana River canyon and the Copper River with the Million Dollar Bridge. "The completion of the Million Dollar Bridge in the summer of 1910 effectively guaranteed the success of the rail project and the shipment of the first load of Kennecott ore in early 1911."</p><br>
<p>Heney had traveled to New York in 1909 to meet with Daniel Guggenheim and other board members about the railroad progress. On his return journey, he departed Seattle on 23 Aug. 1909 aboard the steamship Ohio. On 25 Aug., the Ohio struck an uncharted rock and sank. Heney finally made it to Cordova on 18 Sept. On 30 Nov. 1909 the railroad reached the Tiekel River, completing the first phase of the contract. Heney made another trip to New York to turn over that portion of the railroad to the Katalla Company. On the return trip he spent the winter in Seattle. His health failing, Heney finally succumbed to pulmonary tuberculosis on 4 Oct. 1910.</p><br>
<p>The last spike in the construction, a "copper spike", was driven on 29 March 1911, by Chief Engineer E. C. Hawkins and Superintendent Samuel Murchison at Kennicott.</p><br>
<p>The cost of the railway at $25 million was justified because the mines produced $200 million worth of copper ore during their operation of which at least 50 percent was profit. There were 129 bridges constructed between Cordova and Chitina.</p><br>
<p>As far as is known, the CR&NW was the only railway in Alaska to employ wigwags at railroad crossings.</p><br>
<p>The good ore in the mines ran out and the last train ran on 11 Nov. 1938. In 1941, the Kennecott Corporation donated the railroad right-of-way to the United States "for use as a public highway". In 1953 conversion was started. The Alaska Dept. of Highways had extended the Copper River Highway to Mile 59, from Cordova to the Million Dollar Bridge, by 1964. However, the damage to 28 bridges after the Good Friday earthquake delayed further construction. By 1972 the highway extended to Mile 72 and south 20 miles from Chitina.</p><br>
<p>The bridge has recently (2005) been repaired. Bridge 339 washed out in 2012 and cut the access to the bridge. The roadbed from Chitina to McCarthy now forms the McCarthy Road.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>On April 24, 1973, the railway remains, comprising 11 trestles, an abandoned native village with a Russian post and the Tiekel Station, were added as a historic district to the National Register of Historic Places. The railway&#39;s bunkhouse and messhouse at Chitina were also added to the register on December 5, 2002. The 0-4-0 tank engine, Number 3, "Ole", was declared eligible for the National Register in 1988.</p><br>
<h2>Rolling stock</h2><br>
<p>By 1936, the company had rostered 13 steam locomotives, 6 passenger cars and 327 freight cars.</p><br>
<p>The Willard InterContinental Washington, commonly known as the Willard Hotel, is a historic luxury Beaux-Arts hotel located at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Downtown Washington, D.C. It is currently a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Among its facilities are numerous luxurious guest rooms, several restaurants, the famed Round Robin Bar, the Peacock Alley series of luxury shops, and voluminous function rooms. Owned jointly by Carr Companies and InterContinental Hotels & Resorts, it is two blocks east of the White House, and two blocks west of the Metro Center station of the Washington Metro.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Site</h3><br>
<p>The first structures to be built at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW were six small houses constructed by Colonel John Tayloe III, of The Octagon House, DC, and Mount Airy, Virginia, in 1816. Tayloe leased the six buildings to Joshua Tennison, who named them Tennisons Hotel. The structures served as a hotel for the next three decades, the leaseholder and name changing several times: Williamsons Mansion Hotel, Fullers American House, and the City Hotel.</p><br>
<h3>Willard&#39;s Hotel</h3><br>
<p>The current hotel was founded by Henry Willard, a former chief steward on the steamer "Niagara" on the Hudson River, personally suggested by “Ogle” Tayloes second wife, Miss Phoebe Warren, formerly of Troy, New York, in 1847; when he leased the six buildings, combined them into a single structure, and enlarged it into a four-story hotel he renamed Willards Hotel. Willard purchased the hotel property from Ogle Tayloe in 1864, but a dispute over the purchase price and the form of payment (paper currency or gold coin) led to a major equity lawsuit that ended up in the Supreme Court of the United States. The Supreme Court split the difference in Willard v. Tayloe. 75 USA 557 (1869): The purchase price would remain the same, but Willard must pay in gold coin (which had not depreciated in value the way paper currency had).</p><br>
<h3>Modern Willard Hotel building</h3><br>
<p>The present 12-story structure, designed by famed hotel architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, opened in 1901. It suffered a major fire in 1922 which caused $250,000 (equivalent to $ as of ), in damages. Among those who had to be evacuated from the hotel were Vice President Calvin Coolidge, several USA senators, composer John Philip Sousa, motion picture producer Adolph Zukor, newspaper publisher Harry Chandler, and numerous other media, corporate, and political leaders who were present for the annual Gridiron Dinner.</p><br>
<p>The Willard family sold its share of the hotel in 1946, and due to mismanagement and the severe decline of the area, the hotel closed without a prior announcement on July 16, 1968. The building sat vacant for years, and numerous plans were floated for its demolition. In 1975, the National American Indian Council announced it had purchased the building for its headquarters. It eventually fell into a semi-public receivership and was sold to the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation. They held a competition to rehabilitate the property and ultimately awarded it to the Oliver Carr Company and Golding Associates. The two partners then brought in the InterContinental Hotels Group to be a part owner and operator of the hotel. The Willard was subsequently restored to its turn-of-the-century elegance and an office-building wing was added. The hotel&#39;s reopening on August 20, 1986, amid great celebration, was attended by several USA Supreme Court justices and USA senators. In the late 1990s, the hotel once again underwent significant restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Notable guests</h2><br>
<p>The first group of three Japanese ambassadors to the United States stayed at the Willard with seventy-four other delegates in 1860, where they observed that their hotel room was more luxurious than the USA Secretary of State&#39;s house. It was the first time an official Japanese delegation traveled to a foreign destination, and many tourists and journalists gathered to see the sword-carrying Japanese.</p><br>
<p>In the 1860s, author Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote that "the Willard Hotel more justly could be called the center of Washington than either the Capitol or the White House or the State Department."</p><br>
<p>From February 4 to February 27, 1861, the Peace Congress, featuring delegates from 21 of the 34 states, met at the Willard in a last-ditch attempt to avert the Civil War. A plaque from the Virginia Civil War Commission, located on the Pennsylvania Ave. side of the hotel, commemorates this courageous effort. Later that year, upon hearing a Union regiment singing "John Brown&#39;s Body" as they marched beneath her window, Julia Ward Howe wrote the lyrics to "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" while staying at the hotel in November 1861.</p><br>
<p>On February 23, 1861, amid several assassination threats, detective Allan Pinkerton smuggled Abraham Lincoln into the Willard; there Lincoln lived until his inauguration on March 4, holding meetings in the lobby and carrying on business from his room.</p><br>
<p>On March 27, 1874, the Northern and Southern Orders of Chi Phi met at the Willard to unite as the Chi Phi Fraternity.</p><br>
<p>Many United States presidents have frequented the Willard, and every president since Franklin Pierce has either slept in or attended an event at the hotel at least once; the hotel hence is also known as "the residence of presidents." Ulysses S. Grant first stayed there as a lieutenant in 1852. It was his habit to drink whiskey and smoke a cigar while relaxing in the lobby. Folklore (promoted by the hotel) holds that this is the origin of the term "lobbying," as Grant was often approached by those seeking favors. However, this is probably false, as Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary dates the verb "to lobby" to 1837. Grover Cleveland lived there at the beginning of his second term in 1893, because of concern for his infant daughters health following a recent outbreak of scarlet fever in the White House. Six sitting vice-presidents have lived in the Willard. Millard Fillmore and Thomas A. Hendricks, during his brief time in office, lived in the old Willard; and then four successive vice-presidents, James S. Sherman, Thomas R. Marshall, Calvin Coolidge and finally Charles Dawes all lived in the current building for at least part of their vice-presidency. Fillmore and Coolidge continued in the Willard, even after becoming president, to allow the first family time to move out of the White House.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research was convened at the Willard on May 7, 1907.</p><br>
<p>Plans for Woodrow Wilsons League of Nations took shape when he held meetings of the League to Enforce Peace in the hotels lobby in 1916.</p><br>
<p>A fire broke out in April 1922 while Calvin Coolidge was staying in the building. Attempting to re-enter the building, he was asked to identify himself to the fire marshal, to which he responded, "Im the Vice President." The fire marshals response was "What are you vice president of?"</p><br>
<p>Several hundred officers, many of them combat veterans of World War I, first gathered with the General of the Armies, John J. "Blackjack" Pershing, at the Willard Hotel on October 2, 1922, and formally established the Reserve Officers Association (ROA) as an organization.</p><br>
<p>In 1935 the hotel was used as a place of confinement for William P. MacCracken Jr., Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics, after he was convicted of contempt of Congress in the Air Mail scandal. According to The Washington Post, "Chesley Jurney, the Senate sargeant at arms, had no place to hold MacCracken who, after being sentenced, showed up at Jurney&#39;s house and stayed the night. The next day he was confined to a room at the Willard Hotel."</p><br>
<p>During World War II the British government rented several of the Willards floors for its supply organization. Jean Monnet had his office there. In 1997 a memorial plaque was erected near the hotels entrance to commemorate this episode.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King Jr., wrote his famous "I Have a Dream" speech in his hotel room at the Willard in 1963, in the days leading up to his August 28 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.</p><br>
<p>Among the Willard&#39;s many other famous guests are P. T. Barnum, Mark Twain, Walt Whitman, General Tom Thumb, Samuel Morse, the Duke of Windsor, Harry Houdini, Gypsy Rose Lee, Gloria Swanson, Emily Dickinson, Jenny Lind, Charles Dickens, Bert Bell, Joe Paterno, and Jim Sweeney.</p><br>
<p>Steven Spielberg shot the finale of his film Minority Report at the hotel in the summer of 2001. He filmed with Tom Cruise and Max von Sydow in the Willard Room, Peacock Alley and the kitchen. A replica of the terraced roof of the office building was constructed on a soundstage for the final scene.</p><br>
<p>On February 22, 2012, Australian Foreign Minister Kevin Rudd gave a dramatic resignation speech in the hotel&#39;s Douglas Room.</p><br>
<p>In the days leading up to the 2021 January 6 United States Capitol attack, a series of rooms and suites in the hotel functioned as an informal command center headed by Donald Trump&#39;s personal lawyer Rudolph Giuliani for a White House plot to overturn the results of the 2020 election.</p><br>
<p>The 12th president of South Korea, President Moon Jae-in stayed in the hotel during his 2021 visit.</p><br>
<p>Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi stayed in the hotel during his 2023 visit.</p><br>
<h2>Rating</h2><br>
<p>The AAA gave the hotel four diamonds out of five in 1986. The hotel has maintained that rating every year, and received four diamonds again for 2016. Forbes Travel Guide (formerly known as Mobil Guide) declined to give the hotel either four or five stars in 2016, but did add it to its list of "recommended" properties. In July 2024, Americas Great Resorts added the hotel to its Top Picks as a landmark property.</p><br>
<p>Maeser Elementary was an elementary school in Provo, Utah. It was named after Karl G. Maeser. Built in 1898, it is the oldest school building in Provo, Utah. The school was designed by architect Richard C. Watkins, who also designed the Provo Third Ward Chapel and Amusement Hall, The Knight Block Building, and the Thomas N. Taylor Mansion.</p><br>
<h2>Karl G. Maeser</h2><br>
<p>Karl G. Maeser was born in Germany. Karl Maeser and his wife Anna Therese Meith were baptized into the LDS Church in 1855, and left shortly thereafter for Utah. Detained on their journey due to their decision to serve various missions for the church, the Maesers did not arrive in Utah until 1860.</p><br>
<p>In Utah, Maeser operated various schools and served other missions until the year 1876, where he was called to establish an academy in the name of the church. The academy he established was known as the Brigham Young Academy, now Brigham Young University. Karl G. Maeser served as director, principal, and instructor of the academy. Heber J. Grant, a president of the LDS church stated, "Some of our outstanding men... attribute largely to the force of character of Brother Maeser and the impression made upon them while under his influence their successes in life."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The present site of Provo was settled by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in 1849 when Fort Utah was built near the Provo River. The Mormons, fleeing from persecution in Nauvoo, Illinois, headed west under the direction of Brigham Young and established themselves in the Great Salt Lake area in Utah. Provo was the first settlement in Utah Valley and was part of a plan to establish a chain of communities extending from Salt Lake City. The Mormon communities were planned according to a grid system set forth by their leaders.</p><br>
<p>The first schools in Provo were sometimes held in public buildings and private residences. In the year 1851, the Provo City council gained power to establish, support and regulate common schools, and in 1853 property taxes were approved for building schools. Before the 1870s in Provo, school buildings were small adobe structures. Then in 1875 one united school district was formed and an era of better buildings and schools began. In 1898 the Board of Education approved plans for the construction of Maeser Elementary. The school was dedicated November 9, 1898 with Karl G. Maeser as guest of honor.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998, with note that it was then the oldest public school in Provo that was still in use, and that it "is one of the best-preserved examples of the work of Utah architect Richard Watkins".</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Maeser Schools enrollment dwindled until the decision was made in 2001 to close its doors. The 6th grade class of 2002 was the final graduating class from Maeser School. The future of the historic Maeser School became what then-Mayor Lewis K. Billings called "The second biggest building controversy in the history of Provo." The Maeser School was redeveloped by the Provo City Housing Authority as senior housing. Now known as Maeser School Apartments, the redevelopment project has won several awards, including a HGTV Historic Preservation grant, a Readers Choice award from Affordable Housing Finance, and a "Best in State" award for City planning.</p><br>
<p>The Daily Herald reported: "Somehow, it seems appropriate that historic Maeser School long sheltered young children under its roof and now houses senior residents. After all, it is the very old who most often stop to recall the memories and feelings of how it was to be very young. Perhaps even some elderly folks who attended Maeser School as children will find a welcome reunion and home within its walls in the coming years."</p><br>
<p>The Henry Ford  is a history museum complex in Dearborn, Michigan, United States, within Metro Detroit. The museum collection contains the presidential limousine of John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincolns chair from Fords Theatre, Thomas Edisons laboratory, the Wright Brothers bicycle shop, the Rosa Parks bus, and many other historical exhibits. It is the largest indoor–outdoor museum complex in the United States and is visited by over 1.7 million people each year. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 as Greenfield Village and Henry Ford Museum and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1981 as "Edison Institute".</p><br>
<h2>Museum background</h2><br>
<p>Named for its founder, the automobile industrialist Henry Ford, and based on his efforts to preserve items of historical interest and portray the Industrial Revolution, the property houses homes, machinery, exhibits, and Americana of historically significant items as well as common memorabilia, both of which help to capture the history of life in early America. It is one of the largest such collections in the nation.</p><br>
<p>Henry Ford said of his museum:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Architect Robert O. Derrick designed the museum with a 523,000 ft&sup2; exhibit hall that extends 400 ft behind the main façade. The façade spans 800 ft and incorporates facsimiles of three structures from Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia – Old City Hall, Independence Hall and Congress Hall.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Institute was dedicated by President Herbert Hoover to Ford&#39;s longtime friend Thomas Edison on October 21, 1929 – the 50th anniversary of the first successful incandescent light bulb. The attendees included Marie Curie, George Eastman, John D. Rockefeller, Will Rogers, Orville Wright, and about 250 others. The dedication was broadcast on radio with listeners encouraged to turn off their electric lights until the switch was flipped at the Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Institute was, at first, a private site for educational purposes only, but after numerous inquiries about the complex, it was opened as a museum to the general public on June 22, 1933. It was originally composed of the Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, and the Greenfield Village Schools (an experimental learning facility). Initially, Greenfield Village and the Henry Ford Museum were owned by the Ford Motor Company, which is currently a sponsor of the school and cooperates with the Henry Ford to provide the Ford Rouge Factory Tour. The Henry Ford is sited between the Ford Dearborn Development Center and several Ford engineering buildings with which it shares the same style gates and brick fences.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the museum purchased what it believed to be a 17th-century Brewster Chair, created for one of the Pilgrim settlers in the Plymouth Colony, for $9,000. In September 1977, the chair was determined to be a modern forgery created in 1969 by Rhode Island sculptor Armand LaMontagne. The museum retains the piece as an educational tool on forgeries.</p><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, the museum added an auditorium to the building&#39;s south corner. This housed an IMAX theater until January 2016 when museum management decided to change formats for the facility to better fit with its mission. The renovated theater reopened in April of that year.</p><br>
<h2>Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation</h2><br>
<p>The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation began as Henry Ford&#39;s personal collection of historic objects, which he began collecting as far back as 1906. Today, the 12 acre (49,000 m) site is primarily a collection of antique machinery, pop culture items, automobiles, locomotives, aircraft, and other items:</p><br>
<p>The museum features a 4K digital projection theater, which shows scientific, natural, or historical documentaries, as well as major feature films.</p><br>
<p>An Oscar Mayer Wienermobile</p><br>
<p>The 1961 Lincoln Continental, SS-100-X in which President John F. Kennedy was riding when he was assassinated.</p><br>
<p>The rocking chair from Ford&#39;s Theatre in which President Abraham Lincoln was sitting when he was shot by John Wilkes Booth.</p><br>
<p>George Washington&#39;s camp bed.</p><br>
<p>A collection of several fine 17th- and 18th-century violins including a Stradivarius.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Edison&#39;s alleged last breath in a sealed tube.</p><br>
<p>Buckminster Fuller&#39;s prototype Dymaxion house.</p><br>
<p>The bus on which Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat, leading to the Montgomery bus boycott.</p><br>
<p>Igor Sikorsky&#39;s prototype helicopter.</p><br>
<p>Fokker Trimotor airplane that flew the first flight over the North Pole.</p><br>
<p>Bill Elliott&#39;s record-breaking race car clocking in at over 212 MPH at Talladega in 1987</p><br>
<p>Fairbottom Bobs, the Newcomen engine</p><br>
<p>A steam engine from Cobb&#39;s Engine House in England.</p><br>
<p>A working fragment of the original Holiday Inn "Great Sign"</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 2-6-6-6 "Allegheny"-class steam locomotive #1601, built by Lima Locomotive Works in Lima, Ohio. The Allegheny was the third most-powerful steam locomotive ever built, after the Union Pacific Railroad "Big Boy" 4-8-8-4 locomotive and the Pennsylvania Railroad Q2-class 4-4-6-4 locomotive.</p><br>
<p>Toyota Prius sedan, the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle.</p><br>
<p>Behind the scenes, the Benson Ford Research Center uses the resources of The Henry Ford, especially the photographic, manuscript and archival material which is rarely displayed, to allow visitors to gain a deeper understanding of American people, places, events, and things. The Research Center also contains the Ford Motor Archives.</p><br>
<p>To commemorate the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the Henry Ford Museum exhibited a vast array of artifacts and media documenting the Titanics voyage and demise. The exhibit was hosted from 31 March to 30 September 2012.</p><br>
<h3>Selected exhibits</h3><br>
<h2>Greenfield Village</h2><br>
<p>Greenfield Village, the outdoor living history museum section of the Henry Ford complex, was (along with the adjacent Henry Ford Museum) dedicated in 1929 and opened to the public in June 1933. It was the first outdoor museum of its type in the nation, and served as a model for subsequent outdoor museums. Patrons enter at the gate, passing by the Josephine Ford Memorial Fountain and Benson Ford Research Center. Nearly one hundred historical buildings were moved to the property from their original locations and arranged in a "village" setting. The museum&#39;s intent is to show how Americans have lived and worked since the founding of the country. The Village includes buildings from the 17th century to the present, many of which are staffed by costumed interpreters who conduct period tasks such as farming, sewing and cooking. A collection of craft buildings such as pottery, glass-blowing, and tin shops provide demonstrations while producing materials used in the Village and for sale. The Village features costumed and plain-clothed presenters to tell stories and convey information about the attractions. Some of these presenters are seasonal, such as the "games on the green" presenters who only operate in the summer. Greenfield Village has 240 acres (970,000 m) of land of which only 90 acres (360,000 m) are used for the attraction, the rest being forest, river and extra pasture for the sheep and horses.</p><br>
<p>Village homes, buildings, and attractions include:</p><br>
<p>Noah Webster&#39;s Connecticut home, which served as a dormitory for Yale students from 1918 to 1936, when it was obtained by Henry Ford and moved to Greenfield Village where it was restored.</p><br>
<p>The Wright brothers&#39; bicycle shop and home, which were bought and moved by Henry Ford in 1937 from Dayton, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>A replica of Thomas Edison&#39;s Menlo Park laboratory complex from New Jersey. Its reconstruction started in 1928. The buildings were laid out according to exact foundation measurements from the original site. It was furnished with original or faithful duplicates, all placed as they were originally.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Homestead, birthplace of Thomas Edison&#39;s father. It was built in 1816 in Vienna, Ontario, and moved to Greenfield Village in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Henry Fords birthplace, which was moved from Greenfield and Ford roads in 1944. Henry Ford had it furnished exactly as it was during his mothers time.</p><br>
<p>Henry Ford&#39;s prototype garage where he built the Ford Quadricycle.</p><br>
<p>Harvey S. Firestone family farmhouse from Columbiana, Ohio, which was given to the Village by Harveys two remaining sons in 1983 to perpetuate their fathers memory. The disassembling and rebuilding process took over two years, and the farm has been operated as a working sheep farm since 1985.</p><br>
<p>The Logan County, Illinois, courthouse where Abraham Lincoln practiced law.</p><br>
<p>William Holmes McGuffey&#39;s birthplace.</p><br>
<p>Luther Burbank&#39;s office.</p><br>
<p>J. R. Jones General Store was built circa 1857 in Waterford Village, Michigan. It was moved to Greenfield Village in 1927 after being purchased by Henry Ford from its then-owner August V. Jacober for $700 and the agreement to rebuild a new store on its Waterford site. It was the first structure to arrive at the Greenfield Village site. The general store was placed in its permanent location facing the village green in the spring of 1929.</p><br>
<p>Ackley Covered Bridge, a 75-foot wooden covered bridge, built in 1832 over Enlow Fork along the Greene–Washington County line in Southwestern Pennsylvania and moved to the village in 1937.</p><br>
<p>Cape Cod Windmill, also known as the Farris mill, is considered one of the oldest in America. It was originally built in 1633 on the north side of Cape Cod. It was moved several times around Cape Cod until it was given to Henry Ford by the Ford Dealers Association, and installed in Greenfield Village in 1936.</p><br>
<p>In 1935, a structure was added to the park and was identified as the home of Stephen Foster. The structure was identified by historians of the time as being authentic and was then deconstructed and moved "piece by piece" from the Lawrenceville neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Greenfield Village, Michigan. Foster&#39;s niece insisted that it was not his birthplace, and in 1953 the claim was withdrawn.</p><br>
<p>A 1913 Herschell-Spillman carousel with an Artizan C band organ with a replica Wurlitzer #153 facade converted to play Wurlitzer rolls.</p><br>
<p>There are various modes of historic transportation in the Village providing rides for visitors, which utilize authentic Ford Model Ts, a 1931 Ford Model AA bus (one of about 15 known to exist), horse-drawn omnibuses, and trains pulled by steam locomotives on the Weiser Railroad.</p><br>
<h3>Weiser Railroad</h3><br>
<p>The rail line on which the steam locomotives in Greenfield Village presently run originally consisted of a simple straight stretch of track along the northern edge of the museum property, and has been present ever since Greenfield Village was dedicated in 1929. The rail line, now named the Weiser Railroad, was later expanded into a continuous loop around the perimeter of the museum property, which was completed in stages between 1971 and 1972. This passenger line is 2 mi long and has four stations. All of the railroad&#39;s stations consist solely of single side platforms except for the station in the Railroad Junction section, which also includes the relocated Smiths Creek Depot building originally built for the Grand Trunk Railway in 1858.</p><br>
<p>The line utilizes a modern replica of a Detroit, Toledo & Milwaukee Railroad (DT&M) roundhouse built in 1884 in Marshall, Michigan. At the time it was opened to the public in 2000, the new DT&M Roundhouse replica was one of only seven working roundhouses open to the public in the United States. A hand-operated Pere Marquette Railway turntable, originally built in 1901 in Petoskey, Michigan, is also in use.</p><br>
<p>The railroad, unusual for a heritage railroad built purposely for tourism, has a direct connection to the United States National Railroad Network. The line to which it connects is a section of the Michigan Line owned by MDOT and is used by Amtraks Wolverine service, which runs between Chicago, Illinois, and Pontiac, Michigan. In the past, Amtraks Greenfield Village station provided direct access to Greenfield Village near the Weiser Railroad&#39;s Smiths Creek Depot for reserved tour groups of twenty or more. It was consolidated in December 2014 with the new John D. Dingell Transit Center. The new transit center is adjacent to the Henry Ford museum complex and has a gate allowing access to the complex via a short walk.</p><br>
<h2>Greenfield Village gallery</h2><br>
<h2>Signature events</h2><br>
<h3>Civil War Remembrance</h3><br>
<p>Each year the Village honors the sacrifices and achievements of those who fought in the American Civil War. The Civil War Remembrance event takes place Memorial Day weekend (Saturday–Monday) every year. An estimated 750,000 people died during the Civil War. The Civil War Remembrance is a weekend event, which includes hundreds of Union and Confederate reenactors, musicians and historic presenters. This event features more than 400 Civil War reenactors who spend the entire weekend in the Village. Greenfield Village provides many opportunities in order to learn about the Civil War: exhibits, presentations, battle reenactments, concerts, short plays, hands-on activities and Q&A with historians.</p><br>
<h3>Motor Muster</h3><br>
<p>Motor Muster is one of two car shows that take place annually in Greenfield Village. Motor Muster is traditionally held on Father&#39;s Day weekend. This event currently features cars built from 1932 to 1976, and features between 600 and 800 cars. Special attractions include car judging, and Pass in Review in which experts discuss highlights of the passing cars.</p><br>
<h3>Summer Camp</h3><br>
<p>Every summer the Henry Ford has a Summer Camp. It takes place inside Greenfield Village and the Henry Ford Museum between June and August. It is for children in grades 2–9. Each grade level has a different theme and children who participate in the Summer Camp have the opportunity to look at both the Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation and Greenfield Village from different perspectives. Children participate in activities such as: apprenticeships, canoeing, glass blowing and other age-dependent activities.</p><br>
<h3>World Tournament of Historic Base Ball</h3><br>
<p>The World Tournament of Historical Base Ball takes place every year in August. Guests get to take a step back in time to 1867 as vintage base ball clubs from around the country compete by the game&#39;s early rules in a two-day exposition of historic base ball. The clubs engage in two days of throwing, batting and competition. The event is included in Greenfield Village admission.</p><br>
<h3>Salute to America</h3><br>
<p>For four nights around Independence Day, the Detroit Symphony Orchestra performs a patriotic concert on Walnut Grove in the Village. Attendance ranges from 5000 to 9500 per evening.</p><br>
<h3>Ragtime Street Fair</h3><br>
<p>This weekend event in July was first presented in 2007 and ran annually through 2015. Ragtime Street Fair featured dozens of live performers, including the River Raisin Ragtime Revue, "Perfessor" Bill Edwards, Mike Montgomery, Nan Bostick, Taslimah Bey, John Remmers, and Tartarsauce Traditional Jazz Band, who celebrated the Ragtime era (ca. 1900–1917). The event also featured silent movies, phonograph demonstrations, a cake walk, a cutting contest, and a musical revue in Town Hall as well as the 1912 presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt. Instruction in the ragtime one-step was provided free of charge at this event.</p><br>
<h3>Old Car Festival</h3><br>
<p>The Old Car Festival takes place every year in September. The Old Car Festival has been held on the first weekend after Labor Day since 1955. The festival takes over the streets and grounds of Greenfield Village with the sights, sounds, and smells of hundreds of authentic vehicles from the 1890s through 1932. This event features 500–700 cars. Special events include car judging, Pass in Review, the gaslight tour, and car races on the Walnut Grove field. Guests can take a self-guided tour of the exposition and talk to the owners of the treasured vehicles. Visitors can watch a Model T be assembled in just minutes, attend presentations, and hear experts share information about the vintage vehicles.</p><br>
<h3>Hallowe&#39;en in Greenfield Village</h3><br>
<p>The Village&#39;s Halloween celebration features decorations, a headless horseman, witches, other costumed characters, treats and activities for visitors. It is held Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday evenings in October.</p><br>
<h3>Holiday Nights</h3><br>
<p>The Christmas season has traditionally been popular in Greenfield Village. Many buildings feature period decorations and the Village is open for self-guided strolls. An ice skating rink is available. Visitors can view live entertainment and costumed presenters or ride in a horse-drawn carriage or Model T.</p><br>
<h2>Rouge Tour</h2><br>
<p>The Ford Rouge Factory Tour is a first-hand journey behind the scenes of a modern, working automobile factory. Boarding buses at the Henry Ford Museum, visitors are taken to the River Rouge Plant and Dearborn Truck Plant, an industrial complex where Ford has built cars since the Model A that once employed 100,000 people.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the Ford Rouge Factory, the manufacturing facility for the Ford F-Series truck, reopened following extensive renovations. When it reopened in 2003, as sustainable architecture (Gold LEED Building) led by noted green architect William McDonough, it also opened a new state-of-the-art visitor center highlighting the factorys sustainable aspects and educating visitors on the legacy of the historic manufacturing facility as well as the vehicle manufacturing process that takes place within the manufacturing plant. The visitor experiences, designed by award-winning experience designer Bob Rogers and the design team BRC Imagination Arts, offers two multi-screen theaters, numerous touchscreen interpretive displays and overlook the worlds largest "Green" roof, atop the factory. Visitors then walk through the working assembly plant.</p><br>
<p>Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park is a 932 acre park located in the Sierra Pelona in northern Los Angeles County, California. It is known for its rock formations, the result of sedimentary layering and later seismic uplift. It is located near the town of Agua Dulce, between the cities of Santa Clarita and Palmdale. The area is visible from the Antelope Valley Freeway . Its location approximately 25 mi from downtown Los Angeles places it within Hollywood&#39;s "studio zone" and makes it a popular filming location for films and television programs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>These rock formations were formed by rapid erosion during uplift about 25 million years ago, and then later exposed by uplift activity along the San Andreas Fault.</p><br>
<p>The Tataviam people were living here when the Spanish arrived and still live in the region, with a modern tribal government. The village of Mapipinga was located here. Their language was most likely a Takic Uto-Aztecan language. They lived in grass huts within villages. With the coming of the Spanish missions, some of these people were forced to work there. They eventually began speaking Spanish and inter-marrying with other tribes.</p><br>
<p>In 1874, Tiburcio Vásquez, one of California&#39;s most notorious Mexican bandidos, used these rocks to elude capture by law enforcement. His name has since been associated with this geologic feature.</p><br>
<p>The land and rock formations were acquired gradually by Los Angeles County, beginning with a donation of 40 acres in 1971, with more parcels being added through 2001. The Pacific Crest Trail crosses through the park.</p><br>
<p>Vasquez Rocks was added to the National Register of Historic Places (site #72000228) in 1972 because of its significance as a prehistoric site for the Shoshone and Tataviam peoples.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>Literature reviews have dated the earliest sedimentation of the Vasquez Formation occurring between the later portion of the Oligocene Epoch to the lower Miocene Epoch, each respectively 33.9-23 million years ago and 23.03-5.3 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The Vasquez Formation resides within the Soledad Basin, an orthogonal rift between the Sierra Pelona Mountains to the northwest and the San Gabriel Mountains to the east, which are both within the province of the Transverse Mountain Range of Southern California. The San Andreas Fault runs parallel behind the Sierra Pelona Mountains and separates the formation from the North American Plate.</p><br>
<p>The Vasquez Formation consists of alluvial sediments that eroded from the Sierra Pelona and San Gabriel Mountains and were deposited in alluvial fans on both sides of the Soledad Basin. Erosion of the sediment included processes like rain, floods, wind, and earthquakes. Once laid flat across the basin floor, immense pressure converted the layers into sandstone, which became covered with younger sediment deposits. The sediment beds reside in a sharply folded syncline.</p><br>
<p>Due to its proximity to the San Andreas Fault, tectonic activity has been an important factor in the reshaping, uplift, and exposure of the buried sandstone. The Elkhorn Fault, an offshoot of the San Andreas Fault, runs through the Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park. Other faults, such as the Pelona, Vasquez Canyon, Soledad, and San Gabriel Faults, are all within proximity of the formation. The most exposed portion of the Vasquez Formation is the oldest tertiary formation within the east portion of the Ventura Basin.</p><br>
<p>The Vasquez Rocks consist mainly of coarse-grained conglomerate and breccia sediments, which were deposited adjacent to active faults during rapid uplift and consequent erosion of the San Gabriel Mountains. Approximately 25 million years ago (late Oligocene time), the collision of the North American and Pacific tectonic plates uplifted the area along the Elkhorn Fault. Energetic erosion of the highland along with uplift and volcanism caused debris flow sediments to be distributed in alluvial fans into a rapidly subsiding rift known as the Soledad Basin. These sediments were buried and lithified through the Miocene and became exposed more recently via activity along the San Andreas Fault system. The strata are now highly tilted and disconnected from their source area. The strata were deformed and offset by the later fault activity. The distinctive hogback ridges of steeply inclined strata serve to graphically demonstrate the significant fault activity in the area. It is possible to see the extreme variance in grain size between layers of sediment where the strata are exposed. These sedimentary rocks, named the Mint Canyon Formation, were laid down about 8-15 million years ago. In the upper layers, many animal fossils have been found, including camels, horses and rodents.</p><br>
<p>Soil surveyors mapped much of the park as Rock Land with no soil cover; where soil exists the dominant series is Gaviota gravelly loam which ranges from 6 to 20 inches thick.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The ecology of the park is characteristic of the California montane chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. The park is primarily covered in short grasses, scrub oak trees, California junipers, yucca, and other chaparral shrubs such as California sagebrush and California buckwheat.</p><br>
<h2>Role in entertainment</h2><br>
<p>The park&#39;s visually interesting terrain and proximity to Hollywood have made it a frequently used filming location since the 1930s. As it was within the studio zone, union actors and crew could be asked to work there without producers needing to pay extra. It became popular as a setting in Westerns in the 1940s and 1950s, followed by numerous television series.</p><br>
<p>The prominent rock formation is featured as fictional alien settings in four episodes of the original late 1960s Star Trek series, from which it gained the nickname "Kirk&#39;s Rock". The location was subsequently used the same way in the films Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) and Star Trek (2009), and episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek Voyager, and Star Trek: Enterprise. Star Trek: Picard features scenes set and filmed at Vasquez Rocks, making it the first time the rocks have been seen as themselves in the franchise. Futurama pays homage to its usage in Star Trek in the episode "Where No Fan Has Gone Before", in which most of the original series actors and broadcast tapes are transported to an alien planet whose landscape prominently features rocks modeled after those at Vasquez.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park is open from sunrise to sunset for outdoor activities. The park has equestrian areas, picnic areas, hiking trails, and rock climbing. The Pacific Crest Trail passes through Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park and can be used for short as well as lengthy hikes. Special events can also be hosted there, such as star parties and weddings.</p><br>
